The environmental impact of flight occurs because aircraft engines emit heat, noise, particulates, and gases that contribute to global climate change and dimming. Aircraft emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), water vapor, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, lead, and carbon blacks that interact between them and with the atmosphere.
Despite the reduction of emissions from cars and more fuel-efficient and less turbofan and turboprop turbine engines, the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributed to the increase in total pollution caused by aviation. From 1992 to 2005, passenger kilometers increased 5.2% per year. And in the EU, GHG emissions from aviation increased by 87% between 1990 and 2006.
Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations for airframes, engines, aerodynamics and flight operations, there is no visible end, even decades out, for rapid growth in CO 2 emissions from air travel and transportation air. , Due to projected sustained growth in air travel. This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulations up to the ICAO three-year conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme, and due to a lack of tax on aviation fuel worldwide, lower tariffs become more frequent than vice versa, which giving the competition an advantage over other modes of transportation. Unless the market constraints are in place, the growth of these aviation emissions will generate sector emissions amounting to all or nearly all global CO budgets every year, if climate change is held for a temperature increase of 2 Ã, Â ° C or less.
There is an ongoing debate about the possibility of taxation of air travel and the entry of flights in emissions trading schemes, with a view to ensuring that total external flight costs are taken into account.
Video Environmental impact of aviation
Climate change
Like all human activities involving combustion, most forms of flight release carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and other greenhouse gases into the Earth's atmosphere, contribute to the acceleration of global warming and (in the case of CO 2 ) ocean acidification. This concern is highlighted by the current volume of commercial aviation and its growth rate. Globally, about 8.3 million people fly daily (3 billion seats occupied per year), twice the total in 1999. The US airline alone burned about 16.2 billion gallons of fuel over the twelve months between October 2013 and September 2014.
In addition to CO 2 released by most aircraft in flight through fuel combustion such as Jet-A (turbine) or Avgas (piston plane), the aviation industry also contributes to greenhouse gas emissions from the ground. airport vehicles and used by passengers and staff to access the airport, as well as through emissions generated by energy production used in airport buildings, aircraft manufacturing and airport infrastructure development.
While the major greenhouse gas emissions from in-flight powered aircraft are CO 2 , other emissions may include nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide (together called nitrogen oxide or NO x ), water of vapor and particulates (particles of soot and sulfate), sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide (which is bound to oxygen to become CO 2 immediately after removal), imperfect hydrocarbons are burned, tetraethyllead (piston plane only) and radicals such as hydroxyl, depending on the type of aircraft used. The emission weighting factor (EWF) is the factor in which the CO 2 flight emissions must be multiplied to obtain CO 2 emissions -the equivalent rate for the average annual fleet conditions in the 1.3- 2.9.
The cumulative mechanism and effects of aviation on climate
In 1999 the contribution of global civilian aircraft emissions to the global CO 2 is estimated at about 2%. However, in the case of high altitude flights that often fly near or in the stratosphere, non-CO 2 height-sensitive effects can increase the total impact on anthropogenic climate change (man-made) significantly. A 2007 report from the Environmental Change Institute/Oxford University suggested a closer range to a cumulative effect of 4 percent. Subsonic aircraft in aviation contribute to climate change in four ways:
Carbon dioxide (CO 2 )
The CO 2 emission of an in-flight aircraft is the most significant and most understood element of aviation's total contribution to climate change. The levels and effects of CO 2 emissions are now believed to be widely the same regardless of the height (ie they have the same atmospheric effect as ground-based emissions). In 1992, CO 2 emissions from aircraft were estimated at about 2% of all such anthropogenic emissions, and that year the atmospheric concentrations of CO 2 were attributable to flights of about 1% a total increase of anthropogenic since the industrial revolution, has accumulated mainly over the last 50 years.
NSAIDs (NOT x ) In the highlands flown by large jet aircraft around tropopause, NO x emissions are very effective in shaping ozone (O 3 ) in the upper troposphere. High Altitude (8-13 km) NO x produces a greater emission of O 3 than the surface emission NO x , and this in turn has the effects of global warming are greater. The effect of concentration of O 3 is regional and local emission (as opposed to CO 2 , which is global).
NO emissions x also reduces the ambient levels of methane, another greenhouse gas, producing a climate cooling effect. But this effect does not compensate for the O 3 effect of NO x . It is currently believed that sulfur emissions and plane air in the stratosphere tend to deplete O 3 , partially offset that NO x -Reduce O 3 increase. These effects have not yet been quantified. This problem does not apply to aircraft that fly lower in the troposphere, such as light aircraft or many commuter planes.
Water vapor (H 2 O), and contrails
One of the products of burning hydrocarbons in oxygen is water vapor, a greenhouse gas. The water vapor produced by aircraft engines at high altitudes, under certain atmospheric conditions, condenses into droplets to form condensation paths, or contrails. Contrails are visible line clouds that form in cold and humid atmospheres and are thought to have global warming effects (though one less significant effect of CO 2 or NO x ). Contrails are rare (though not uncommon) from low-altitude aircraft, or from planes driven by propellers or rotor planes.
Cirrus clouds have been observed to develop after continuous contrail formation and have been found to have global warming effects above and above the contrail formation alone. There is a degree of scientific uncertainty about the contribution of the formation of contrail and cirrus clouds to global warming and attempts to estimate the contribution of overall aviation climate change is not likely to include its impact on increasing cirrus clouds. However, a 2015 study found that artificial turbidity caused by "outbreak" contrail reduces the difference between daytime and nighttime temperatures. The first decreases and the latter increases, compared with the temperature of the day before and the day after the outbreak. In days with outbreaks the day/night temperature difference was reduced by about 6F Â ° in South America and 5 Â ° in the Midwest.
Particulate
At least significant on the mass basis is the release of soot and sulfate particles. Soot absorbs heat and has a warming effect; sulphate particles reflect radiation and have a small cooling effect. In addition, particles can affect the formation and properties of clouds, including the line-shaped contrail and cirrus clouds that occur naturally. The impact of "the deployment of contrails and cirrus clouds evolving from them - collectively known as cirrus contrail - has greater radiation strength (RF) today than all CO 2 flight emissions since the first aircraft-powered flight". Of the particles emitted by aircraft engines, soot particles are considered most important for contrail formations because they are large enough to function as a condensing core of water vapor. All planes powered by combustion will release a certain amount of soot; though, recent studies show that reducing the aromatic content of jet fuel decreases the amount of carbon black that is produced.
GHG emissions per kilometer of passengers
Average emissions
The passenger plane's emissions per kilometer of passengers vary widely due to different factors such as the size and type of aircraft, the altitude and percentage of passengers or certain flight carrying capacity, and the distance traveled and the number of stops on the way. Also, the effects of a given amount of emissions on climate (radiation impulse) are greater at higher altitudes: see below. Some representative figures for CO 2 emissions are provided by the LIPASTO survey of the average direct emissions (excluding the effects of high altitude radiation) from aircraft expressed as CO 2 and CO < sub> 2 equivalent per kilometer of passengers:
- Domestic, short distance, less than 463 km (288 mi): 257 g/km CO 2 or 259 g/km (14.7 oz/mil) CO 2 e
- Domestic, long distance, greater than 463 km (288 mi): 177 g/km CO 2 or 178 g/km (10.1 oz/mile) CO 2 e
- Long-haul: 113 g/km CO 2 or 114 g/km (6.5 oz/mil) CO 2 e
This emission is similar to a four-seat car with one person in it; however, air travel often covers more distances than is done by car, so total emissions are much higher. For perspective, per typical New York economy class passenger to Los Angeles round trip yields about 715 kg (1574 lb) CO 2 (but is equivalent to 1,917 kg (4,230 pounds) CO 2 when high altitude "force climate" effect is taken into account). In the above flight categories, emissions from scheduled jet flights are substantially higher than those of turboprop or chartered jets. Approximately 60% of aviation emissions arise from international flights, and these flights are not covered by the Kyoto Protocol and emission reduction targets. However, in more recent developments:
The United Nations aviation arm ratifies an agreement Thursday (06.Oct.2016) to control global warming emissions from international aviation, the first climate change pact to set a world boundary in one industry. The deal, enacted by the 191-nation International Civil Aviation Organization at a meeting in Montreal, sets the airline's carbon emissions by 2020 as the upper limit of what is allowed for operators to be laid off.
Figures from British Airways show 100g carbon dioxide emissions per kilometer of passenger for large jet aircraft (a number that does not take into account the production of pollutants or other condensation lines).
Emissions by the passenger class, and seating configuration effects
In 2013, the World Bank published a study on the effects of CO 2 emissions from the travel of its staff in business class or first class, compared to using economy class. Among the factors under consideration is that this premium class displaces more economic seats for the same total airspace capacity, and different load factors and associated weight factors. This is not taken into account in previous standard carbon accounting methods. The study concludes that when considering each of the average load factors (percent of seats occupied) in each seating class, the business grade and first class carbon footprint is three times and nine times higher than the economy class. A related article by the International Council on Clean Transport notes further on the effect of seating configurations on carbon emissions that:
The A380 is marketed as a "green giant" and one of the most advanced aircraft out there. But the spin was based on a maximum-capacity aircraft configuration, or about 850 economy passengers. In fact, the typical A380 aircraft has 525 seats. Its fuel performance is proportional to the B747-400 ER and is even about 15% worse than the B777-300ER passenger-mile (calculated using Piano-5 on flights from AUH to LHR, assuming 80% passenger load factor, average in the service chair).
Total climatic effects
In an effort to collect and calculate total climate impacts from aircraft emissions, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that the total aviation climate impact is about 2-4 times that of direct CO 2 (excluding impacts potential of an increase in cirrus clouds). This is measured as a forced radiation. Although there is uncertainty about the exact extent of the effects of NO x and water vapor, the government has accepted a broad scientific view that they have an effect. Globally in 2005, aviation contributed "perhaps as much as 4.9% of the radiation strength." The UK government's policy statement has emphasized the need for aviation to address the total impact of climate change and not just the impact of CO 2 .
The IPCC has estimated that flights are responsible for about 3.5% of anthropogenic climate change, a figure that includes the side effects of CO 2 and non-CO 2 . The IPCC has produced a scenario that estimates what this number is by 2050. The central case estimate is that aviation contributions can grow up to 5% of total contributions in 2050 if action is not taken to address these emissions, even though the highest scenario is 15%. In addition, if other industries achieve significant cuts in their own greenhouse gas emissions, the share of aviation as a proportion of the remaining emissions may also increase.
Future emission levels
Despite a significant increase in fuel efficiency through aircraft technology and operational management as described here, these improvements continue to be eliminated by increasing air traffic volumes.
The December 2015 report found that the aircraft could produce 43Ã, Gt carbon pollution by 2050, spending nearly 5% of the remaining global climate budget. Without regulation, global aviation emissions could triple by mid-century and could transmit more than 3 Gt of carbon every year under a business-as-usual high-growth scenario. Efforts to bring aviation emissions under effective global agreements have so far failed, although there have been a number of technological and operational improvements on offer.
Continuous improvement in transit and delivery
From 1992 to 2005, passenger kilometers increased 5.2% annually, even with 9/11 disruptions and two significant battles. Since the beginning of the current recession:
During the first three quarters of 2010, the air travel market expanded at an annual rate close to 10%. This is similar to the level seen in rapid expansion before the recession. The November result means the annual growth rate so far in Q4 fell back to around 6%. But this is still in line with the traffic growth rate that looks historical. The international air travel rate is now 4% above the pre-recession peak in early 2008 and the current expansion seems to have gone further.
Air transport reached a new high point in May (2010) but, after the end of the inventory replenishment activity, the volume has come back down to settle at the same level seen before the recession. Even so, that means the expansion of air transport during 2010 from 5-6% on an annual basis - close to historical trends. With stimulus deletion inventory removal activities removed, further growth in air transport demand will be driven by end consumer demand for goods utilizing the air transport supply chain.... The end of the inventory cycle does not mean the end of the volume expansion but the market is entering a slower growth phase.
In a 2008 presentation and paper, Professor Kevin Anderson of the Tyndall Climate Change Research Center demonstrates how sustainable aviation growth in the UK threatens the country's ability to meet the CO 2 reduction goals needed to accommodate this century - temperature up to 4 or 6C Â °. (See also: 4 Degrees and Beyond the International Climate Conference (2009) and the process.) His chart shows the projected increase in domestic aviation carbon emissions for the UK as it grew from 11 MT in 2006 to 17 MT in 2012, in historic Britain annual emissions growth rate of 7%. Outside 2012 if the growth rate is reduced to 3% per year, carbon emissions by 2030 will be 28 MT, which represents 70% of the entire UK carbon emissions budget that year for all sectors of society. This work also shows the future that many other countries with high dependency on aviation will face. "Hypermobile Tourists", an academic study by Stefan GÃÆ'¶ssling et al. (2009) in the book "Climate Change and Aviation", also shows a dilemma caused by increased hypermobility of air travelers both in certain countries and globally.
Coverage for improvement
Airplane efficiency
While it is true that the final jet aircraft model is significantly more fuel efficient (and thus emits less CO 2 in particular) than the earliest jet aircraft, the new aircraft model in the 2000s was barely more efficient in seats - a bit basic than the latest piston-powered aircraft in the late 1950s (eg Constellation L-1649-A and DC-7C). Claims for high efficiency improvements for aircraft over the last few decades (though partially true) have been highly biased in most studies, using inefficient jet aircraft models early as baseline. The planes are optimized for increased revenue, including increased speed and cruising altitudes, and are quite inefficient fuel compared to their piston-powered pioneers.
Currently, turboprop aircraft - probably in part because of its lower cruising speed and altitude (similar to previous piston-powered aircraft) compared to jet aircraft - plays a clear role in the overall fuel efficiency of a large carrier with a regional carrier subsidiary. For example, although Alaska Airlines scored at the top of the 2011-2012 fuel efficiency rankings, if its large - turbo - prop equipped Horizon Air - dropped from centralized consideration, the airline 's rankings would be lower, as noted in the ratings study.
Aircraft manufacturers are trying to reduce CO 2 and NOx emissions with each new generation aircraft and engine design. While the introduction of more modern aircraft represents an opportunity to reduce the emissions per passenger of a flying kilometer, the aircraft is a major investment that lasts for several decades, and the replacement of the international fleet is therefore a long-term proposition that will greatly delay the realization of the climate benefits of various improvements. Machines can be changed at some point, but anyway airframes have a long life. Moreover, instead of being linear from one year to the next, efficiency improvements tend to decrease over time, as reflected in the history of fighter planes and jet planes.
A 2014 lifecycle assessment of crib downs to cemeteries in CO 2 by carbon fiber reinforced aircraft (CFRP) such as Boeing 787 - including manufacture, operation and ultimate disposal - has shown that by 2050, such aircraft could reduce aviation industry aviation 2% by 14-15%, compared to conventional aircraft use. The benefits of CFRP technology are no higher than the amount of reduction, despite its lighter weight and much lower fuel consumption of the aircraft, "due to limited fleet penetration by 2050 and increased demand for air travel due to lower operating costs."
Operating efficiency
Research projects such as the Boeing ecoDemonstrator program have sought to identify ways to improve the efficiency of commercial aircraft operations. The US government has encouraged such research through grant programs, including the FAA's Energy, Emission and Noise (CLEEN) program, and NASA's Environmental Responsible Environmental Project (ERA).
Adding electric propulsion to the aircraft's nose wheel can improve fuel efficiency during ground handling. This addition will allow glide without using the main engine.
Another proposed amendment is to integrate the Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System into the airport airstrip. Some companies like Airbus are currently researching this possibility. The addition of EMALS will allow civilian aircraft to use far less fuel (because much of the fuel is used during takeoff, compared to cruising, when calculated per km flown). The idea is to make the plane take off at a regular aircraft speed, and only use slingshot for take-off, not to land.
Other opportunities arise from optimizing flight schedules, route networks and flight frequencies to increase load factors (minimizing the number of empty seats being flown), along with optimization of air space. However, this is any one-time gain, and when these opportunities are met in a row, reduced results can be expected from the remaining opportunities.
Another possible reduction of climate change impacts is the limitation of the height of the yacht. This will lead to significant reductions in high-altitude contrails for marginal trade-offs of increased flight time and increased CO 2 4% emissions. The downside of this solution includes very limited air space capacity to do this, especially in Europe and North America and increased fuel combustion due to less efficient jet aircraft at lower cruise ship altitudes.
Although they are not suitable for long-haul or oceanic flights, the turboprop aircraft used for commuter flights bring two significant benefits: they often burn less fuel per mile of passengers, and they usually fly at lower altitudes deep inside the tropopause, where there is no concern about ozone or contrail production.
Alternative fuels
Some scientists and companies like GE Aviation and Virgin Fuels are researching biofuel technology for use in jet aircraft. Some aircraft engines, such as the Wilksch WAM120 can (be a 2-step Diesel engine) run with straight vegetable oil. Also, a number of Lycoming machines work well on ethanol.
In addition, there are also several tests conducted combining common petrofuel with biofuel. For example, as part of this test Virgin Atlantic Airways flew the Boeing 747 from London Heathrow Airport to Schiphol Airport Amsterdam on February 24, 2008, with one engine burning a combination of coconut oil and babassu oil. Greenpeace chief scientist Doug Parr said that the flight was "greenwash altitude" and that producing organic oils to make biofuels could lead to deforestation and major increases in greenhouse gas emissions. Also, the majority of the world's planes are not large jet planes but smaller piston planes, and with large modifications many are able to use ethanol as fuel. Another consideration is the large amount of land that will be required to provide the necessary biomass feedstocks to support aviation needs, both civilian and military.
In December 2008, an Air New Zealand jet completed its first commercial flight pilot flight in the world, partly using jatropha based fuel. Jatropha, used for biodiesel, can develop in marginal farms where many trees and plants will not grow, or will only produce slow growth. Air New Zealand sets some common sustainability criteria for its Jatropha, saying that the biofuel should not compete with food sources, that they should be as good as traditional jet fuel, and that they must be competitive with existing fuels.
In January 2009, Continental Airlines used sustainable biofuels to power commercial aircraft for the first time in North America. This marks the first sustainable aviation biofuel demonstration by commercial airlines using dual-engined aircraft, the Boeing 737-800, powered by the CFM International CFM56-7B engine. Mixed biofuels include components derived from algae and jatropha.
One of the alternative biofuel fuels for avgas under development is Swift Fuel. Swift fuel has been approved as a test fuel by ASTM International in December 2009, enabling companies to continue their research and to pursue certification testing. Mary Rusek, president and one of the owners of Swift Enterprises predicted at the time that "100SF would be worth the price, environmentally friendly and more fuel efficient than other common aviation fuel on the market".
In June 2011, officially revised international aviation fuel standards allowed commercial flights to mix conventional jet fuel with up to 50 percent biofuels. Renewable fuels "can be mixed with conventional commercial and military jet fuel through requirements in the recently released edition of ASTM D7566, Specifications for Fuel Turbines Containing Hydrocarbon-Synthesized Water."
In December 2011, the FAA announced it would award $ 7.7 million to eight companies to advance the development of commercial aviation biofuels, with a special focus on ATJ (alcohol to jet) fuel. As part of the CAAFI (Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuel Alternative Fuel) program and the CLEEN (Continuous Lower Emissions, Energy and Noise), the FAA plans to assist in the development of sustainable fuels (from alcohol, sugar, biomass and organic materials such as pyrolysis oils) "fall" to the plane without changing the current infrastructure. This grant will also be used to examine how fuel affects engine resistance and quality control standards.
Finally, liquefied natural gas is another fuel used in some aircraft. In addition to lower GHG emissions (depending on where natural gas is obtained), another big benefit for aircraft operators is the price, which is much lower than the price for jet fuel.
Reduce air travel
The German short video The Bill explores how travel and its effects are typically seen in the world's developed life, and the social pressures that are playing. The English writer George Marshall has been investigating a general rationalization that acts as a barrier to making personal choices to travel less, or to justify the last trip. In an informal research project, "someone you may join," he says, he deliberately directs the conversation with people who are familiar with climate change issues for questions about recent long-haul flights and why the journey is justified. Reflecting on actions that are contrary to their beliefs, he notes, "(i) ntriguing as their mismatch may be, what is primarily revealed is that everyone of these has a career based on the assumption that information is enough to produce change - the assumption that a momentary introspection will show that they are very disabled. "
Business and professional options
With most international conferences having hundreds and even thousands of participants, and most of these trips are usually done by plane, conference travel is an area where significant reductions in air-related GHG emissions can be done.... This does not mean non-presence.
For example, in 2003, Access Grid technology has been successfully used to host several international conferences, and technology has likely grown substantially since then. The Climate Change Research Center Tyndall has systematically studied ways to change common institutional and professional practices that have led to large carbon footprints from travel by research scientists, and issued reports.
Ending the incentive to fly - frequent flyer program
Over 130 airlines have "frequent flyer programs" based on at least a portion of the miles, kilometers, dots or segments for the flights taken. Globally, such programs cover about 163 million people as reported in 2006. These programs benefit airlines by getting people to travel on air and, through a partnership mechanism with credit card companies and other businesses, where income streams with high profit margins can amount to sales. free seats for a high price. The only part of the United Airlines business that made money when the company filed for bankruptcy in 2002 was the frequent flyer program.
Regarding business travel, "The ease of international air travel and the fact that, for most of us, the cost is fulfilled by our employers, means that... travel travel travels are often regarded as workmanship." However, marriage is usually not just a business trip itself, but also frequent flyer points that people get by taking a trip, and that can be redeemed later for private air travel. Thus a conflict of interest is established, in which bottom-up pressure can be made within the company or government agency for a trip that is completely unnecessary. Even when such conflicts are not motivations, frequent flyer mile increases can be expected to lead in many cases to personal travel that will not be taken if the tickets have to be paid with personal funds.
By simply using an airline-sponsored credit card to pay for one's household expenses, personal or business bills, or even a charge bill that is charged to the employer, frequent flyer points can be tortured quickly. Thus, a free trip - where the individual has to pay no extra - becomes a reality. Across the community, this can also be expected to lead to many air travel - and greenhouse gas emissions - which otherwise would not have happened.
Several studies have considered removal of frequent flyer programs (FFPs), on the basis of anti-competitiveness, ethics, conflict with the welfare of the whole society, or climate effects. There are government records prohibiting or banning FFP and industry players requesting a ban. Denmark did not allow the program until 1992, then changed its policy because the airline was harmed. In 2002, Norway banned domestic FFP to promote competition among its airlines. In the US in 1989, a vice president of Braniff "said that the government should consider terminating the frequent flyer program, which he says allows unfair competition."
A Canadian study says that because of competition no airline can unilaterally terminate its FFP, but that the national government can use its regulatory powers to end the program widely, which in the case of Canada will also require cooperation in North America. In further analysis, a Scandinavian study that recommends ending the frequent flyer plan says, "the only way that might prohibit the FFP is successful now that they have spread from the US to Europe to the Far East will do so on a global basis. by the World Trade Organization. "A recent study that surveyed leaflets frequently in the UK and Norway, looked into the addition of frequent fly behavior and" flies dilemma "of the conflict between" the social and personal benefits of aviation impact and air travel on change climate." It concludes that:
The persistent growth in both frequent flying practices and concerns over the effects of air travel climate are in a dynamic relationship and the question of whether one or the other will reach a critical point can not yet be determined. Self-regulation, external regulations, social norms, technology and physical resources will continue to shape balance. Increased stigmatization of 'excessive' air travel can (re) frame the fly as it is more open to collective external mitigation.
This means government action.
Potential for government constraints when requested
One way to reduce the environmental impact of aviation is to limit the demand for air travel, through increased tariffs in place of expanded airport capacity. Several studies have explored this:
- Research in the UK Predicting and Deciding - Aviation, climate change and UK policy , notes that a 10% increase in tariffs results in a 5% to 15% fall in demand, and recommends that the UK government should manage requests rather than provide them. This will be achieved through a strategy that presupposes "... against the expansion of British airport capacity" and limits demand by the use of economic instruments for less attractive air travel rates.
- A study published by the Aviation Environment Federation (AEF) campaign group concluded that by collecting an additional tax of £ 9 billion, the annual growth rate of UK demand for air travel would be reduced to 2%.
- The ninth report of the Environmental Committee of the Environmental Committee, published in July 2006, recommends that the UK government rethink its airport expansion policy and consider ways, especially through increased taxation, where future demand can be managed in line with performance industry in achieving fuel efficiency, so emissions are not allowed to increase in absolute terms.
International regulations on GHG emissions
Kyoto Protocol 2005
Greenhouse gas emissions from fuel consumption on international flights, in contrast to those originating from domestic flights and from energy use by airports, are excluded from the scope of the first period (2008-2012) of the Kyoto Protocol, as well as non-CO 2 climate effects. Instead, the government agreed to work through the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) to limit or reduce emissions and seek solutions for the allocation of emissions from international flights in time for the second period of the Kyoto Protocol from 2009; however, the Copenhagen climate conference failed to reach an agreement.
Recent research indicates this failure as a substantial barrier to global policy including CO 2 sub <2> emission reduction pathways that will avoid dangerous climate change by keeping the average global temperature rise below 2 Ã, Â ° C.
Approach to emissions trading
As part of the process, ICAO has supported the implementation of an open emissions trading system to meet CO 2 emissions reduction goals. Guidelines for the adoption and implementation of global schemes are currently being developed, and will be presented to the ICAO Assembly in 2007, although the prospect of a comprehensive intergovernmental agreement on the implementation of the scheme is uncertain.
However, within the European Union, the European Commission has decided to include flights under the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS). A new directive was adopted by the European Parliament in July 2008 and approved by the Council in October 2008. It became effective on January 1, 2012.
Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute investigated possible effects on the Small Island Developing States (SIDS) of the EU decision to limit the supply of Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) to its ETS market to Least Developed Countries (LDCs) from 2013. Most SIDS are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and rely heavily on tourism as their economic basis, so this decision can put them in a disadvantageous position. Therefore, the researchers highlight the need to ensure that the applicable regulatory framework for addressing climate change takes into account the development needs of the most vulnerable countries affected.
A report published by researchers at the Center for Aviation, Transport and Environment at Manchester Metropolitan University found that the only way to have a significant impact on emissions is to price carbon and use market-based measures (MBM), such as the Emissions Trading Scheme EU (ETS).
​​â € <â € <2016 International Civil Aviation Organization Agreement
In October 2016, the United Nations Agency for International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) completed agreements among its 191 member states to address more than 458 Mt of carbon dioxide emitted annually by international passengers and cargo flights. This agreement will use an offsetting scheme called CORSIA (Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation) where forestry and other carbon abatement activities are directly funded, amounting to about 2% of annual revenue for the sector. Rule against 'double counting' should ensure that existing forest protection efforts are not recycled. The scheme does not apply until 2021 and will be voluntary until 2027, but many countries, including the US and China, have pledged to start on early 2020. Under the agreement, the global aviation emissions target is an 80% reduction by 2035 compared to 2020. The NGO's reaction to the deal varied.
The treaty has criticism. It is not in line with the Paris 2015 climate agreement, which sets the goal of limiting global warming to 1.5 to 2 Â ° C. A late design agreement will require the air transportation industry to assess its share of global carbon budgeting to meet that goal, but the text is removed in agreed version. CORSIA will only manage about 25 percent of international aviation emissions, therefore all grandfather's emissions below the 2020 level, allowing unregulated growth to date. Only 65 countries will participate in the initial voluntary period, excluding major emitters of Russia, India and possibly Brazil. The agreement does not cover domestic emissions, which account for 40% of global industrial emissions. One observer of the ICAO convention made this summary, "The airline claims that flying now will be green is a myth.Eliving the plane is the fastest and cheapest way to fry the planet and this deal will not reduce the demand for jet fuel one drop. to cut emissions in other industries,... "Other critics call it" a rigid step in the right direction. "
The effects of climate change on aviation
Turbulence increases
A report published in the scientific journal Nature Climate changes predicted that an increase in CO 2 would result in a significant increase in the flight turbulence experienced by transatlantic plane flights in the middle of the 20th century. 21. The lead author of the study, Paul Williams, a researcher at the National Center for Atmospheric Science, at the University of Reading stated, "Air turbulence not only disrupts drinking on airplanes, hurt hundreds of passengers and crew, every year - sometimes fatal. It also causes delays and damage to the aircraft. "
Maps Environmental impact of aviation
Noise
Noise plane seen by advocacy groups as very difficult to get attention and action. The underlying problem is an increase in traffic at larger airports and airport expansion at smaller regional airports.
src: to70.com
Water pollution
Airports can generate significant water pollution due to their extensive use and handling of jet fuel, lubricants and other chemicals. The airport installs spill control structures and related equipment (eg, vacuum trucks, portable dykes, absorber) to prevent chemical spills, and reduces the impact of the spill.
In cold climates, the use of deicing fluid can also cause water contamination, as most of the fluid applied to the aircraft falls to the ground and can be transported through rainfall runoff to nearby rivers, rivers or coastal waters. Airlines use deicing liquid based on ethylene glycol or propylene glycol as active ingredients.
Ethylene glycol and propylene glycol are known to exert high levels of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) during degradation at the water surface. This process can affect aquatic life by consuming the oxygen needed by aquatic organisms to survive. A large amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) in the water column is consumed when the microbial population decomposes propylene glycol.
Sufficient levels of dissolved oxygen on the surface of the water are essential for the survival of fish, macroinvertebrates, and other aquatic organisms. If the concentration of oxygen falls below the minimum level, the organism emigrates, if able and possible, to areas with higher oxygen levels or eventually dies. This effect can drastically reduce the amount of aquatic habitats that can be used. DO level reductions can reduce or eliminate bottom feeder populations, create conditions that support changes in the profile of community species, or alter critical food-web interactions.
src: slideplayer.com
Air quality
Particulate emissions
Ultrafine particles (UFP) emitted by aircraft engines during near surface level operations include taxis, take-off, climbing, descending, and landing, as well as idling at the gates and on taxiways. Other UFP sources include ground support equipment operating around the terminal area. In 2014, an air quality study found the area affected by ultrafine particles from takeoff and landing against the wind direction of Los Angeles International Airport became much larger than previously thought. Typical UFP emissions during takeoff are in the order of 10 15 -10 17 particles emitted per kilogram of burned fuel. Sooty particle emissions are 10 14 -10 16 particles per kilogram of fuel on a basis of numbers and 0.1-1 grams per kilogram of fuel on a mass basis, depending on on engine and fuel characteristics.
Lead emissions
Some 167,000 piston-engined aircraft - about three-quarters of private planes in the United States - release lead (Pb) into the air due to leaded lead fuel. From 1970 to 2007, the common aviation aircraft emitted about 34,000 tons of tin into the atmosphere in accordance with the Environmental Protection Agency. Lead is recognized as a serious environmental threat by the Federal Aviation Administration if it is inhaled or swallowed which causes adverse effects on the nervous system, red blood cells and the cardiovascular system and immunity with infants and children is particularly sensitive to even low lead levels, which may contribute to behavior and learning problems, IQ and lower autism.
src: 3c1703fe8d.site.internapcdn.net
Radiation exposure
Source of the article : Wikipedia
The United Nations aviation arm ratifies an agreement Thursday (06.Oct.2016) to control global warming emissions from international aviation, the first climate change pact to set a world boundary in one industry. The deal, enacted by the 191-nation International Civil Aviation Organization at a meeting in Montreal, sets the airline's carbon emissions by 2020 as the upper limit of what is allowed for operators to be laid off.
The A380 is marketed as a "green giant" and one of the most advanced aircraft out there. But the spin was based on a maximum-capacity aircraft configuration, or about 850 economy passengers. In fact, the typical A380 aircraft has 525 seats. Its fuel performance is proportional to the B747-400 ER and is even about 15% worse than the B777-300ER passenger-mile (calculated using Piano-5 on flights from AUH to LHR, assuming 80% passenger load factor, average in the service chair).
During the first three quarters of 2010, the air travel market expanded at an annual rate close to 10%. This is similar to the level seen in rapid expansion before the recession. The November result means the annual growth rate so far in Q4 fell back to around 6%. But this is still in line with the traffic growth rate that looks historical. The international air travel rate is now 4% above the pre-recession peak in early 2008 and the current expansion seems to have gone further.
Air transport reached a new high point in May (2010) but, after the end of the inventory replenishment activity, the volume has come back down to settle at the same level seen before the recession. Even so, that means the expansion of air transport during 2010 from 5-6% on an annual basis - close to historical trends. With stimulus deletion inventory removal activities removed, further growth in air transport demand will be driven by end consumer demand for goods utilizing the air transport supply chain.... The end of the inventory cycle does not mean the end of the volume expansion but the market is entering a slower growth phase.
With most international conferences having hundreds and even thousands of participants, and most of these trips are usually done by plane, conference travel is an area where significant reductions in air-related GHG emissions can be done.... This does not mean non-presence.
The persistent growth in both frequent flying practices and concerns over the effects of air travel climate are in a dynamic relationship and the question of whether one or the other will reach a critical point can not yet be determined. Self-regulation, external regulations, social norms, technology and physical resources will continue to shape balance. Increased stigmatization of 'excessive' air travel can (re) frame the fly as it is more open to collective external mitigation.
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