Water supply and sanitation in Turkey is characterized by achievements and challenges. Over the last few decades access to drinking water has become almost universal and access to adequate sanitation has also increased substantially. Autonomous utilities have been made in 16 metropolitan cities in Turkey and cost recovery has been upgraded, thus providing the basis for continuity of service provision. Intermittent supplies, which are common in many cities, are becoming less frequent. In 2004, 61% of the waste water collected through the sewer was being treated.
The remaining challenges include the need to further improve wastewater treatment, to reduce high levels of non-income water that hovers by about 50% and to expand access to adequate sanitation in rural areas. The investment required to meet EU standards in this sector, especially in wastewater treatment, is estimated to be in the order of Euro 2 billion per year, more than double the current level of investment.
Institutionally, the sector is fragmented. The functions of policy, arrangement and planning are spread among the five Ministries, State Hydraulic Works (DSI) and State Planning Organizations under the Prime Minister's Office. The provision of services is the responsibility of approximately 2,400 municipalities and 16 utilities in the largest cities. External cooperation has been played and continues to play a leading role for water and sanitation in Turkey. Germany, France, the European Union and the World Bank are the main external partners.
Video Water supply and sanitation in Turkey
Access
By 2015, in Turkey, access to water is universal. Regarding sanitation, 95% of the population has access to "better" sanitation, 98% of the urban population and 86% of the rural population. Furthermore, there are still, approximately, 4 million people without access to "sanitation" improvements.
Access to water supply and sanitation in Turkey is high. Based on household surveys and census results, the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation estimates that 100% of Turkey's urban population has access to improved water sources by 2007. In rural areas, where less than a third of the population lives, 96% have access. In urban areas 97% have access to improved sanitation facilities, compared with 75% in rural areas. In urban areas, 95% are connected to sewers, the remaining 5% are served by septic tanks.
Maps Water supply and sanitation in Turkey
Wastewater treatment
There were 138 municipal wastewater treatment plants in Turkey in 2004. According to the Ministry of Environment, 41% of wastewater discharged from sewerage systems were treated in 2004 (1.68 billion m3 2.77 billion m3). Mechanical treatment is applied to 28% of wastewater treated, up to 58% biological treatment and up to 13% uptime care. 53% of wastewater, treated or not, are discharged to fresh surface water bodies, 39% to sea, 1% to fields and 6% to other recipient environments. In Istanbul, the share of treated wastewater increased from 9% in 1993 to 95% in 2004.
Water resources and water usage
In 2008, 4.56 billion m3 of water was abstracted by the municipality or purchased by them to be distributed by them. Of these, 40% were abstracted from the dam, 28% of the well, 23% of the springs, 4% of the rivers, and 5% of the lakes. 111.4 billion m3 of drinking water was sold to 20 million customers, and 4.8 billion Turkish Lira revenues were obtained. This implies that the average non-revenue water level - the resulting water that is not billed - is 48% ((4.56-2.4) x100/4.56) and that the average tariff is 2 Turkish Lira per meter cubic (1.10 Euro/m3). According to the 2008 Municipal Water Statistics Survey, water per capita abstraction is 215 liters per day in 2008. Consumption billed by taking into account non-income water is 52% of that rate, or 112 liters per day.
Urban water use accounts for about 16% of total water use in Turkey, compared to 76% used by agriculture and 12% by industry. Total water withdrawal for all uses only covers 17% of the total water resources available in the average year (average 1977-2001). Urban water use only accounts for about 3% of the available water resources. However, the availability of water is very seasonal and uneven across the country. Local and regional water shortages occur despite the average availability of water. For example, in 2007 a severe drought struck across the Mediterranean coast as well as Central Anatolia and threatened the water supply of Istanbul and Ankara.
Legal and institutional framework
Policies and regulations
There is no water and sanitation law in Turkey, and no institution is assigned to develop policies for drinking water and sanitation or to regulate the sector. A number of environmental, health and local government laws together form the legal framework of this sector. Local governments play a central role in this sector as service providers, partially mobilizing resources for investment financing from their own incomes and responsible for elaboration of site-specific Master Plans, feasibility studies and for the procurement of work required.
At the national level, a number of government entities form the institutional framework of the sector. The State Planning Organization under the Prime Minister's Office is responsible for general investment planning through the Five Year Plan; The Ministry of Home Affairs is responsible for overseeing local government through the Directorate General of Local Authorities; Ministry of Public Works and Settlements controls Provincial State Banks, sources of financing for water supply and sanitation; The Ministry of Environment and Forestry is responsible for developing water resources and monitoring and enforcement of the environment; The Ministry of Agriculture through the drinking water unit at the Directorate General of Rural Services (KHGM) is responsible for the planning, financing and construction of rural drinking water supplies; and the Ministry of Health is responsible for monitoring the quality of drinking water.
Terms of service
The 16 largest cities in Turkey each have a legally separate and financially independent municipal water and sanitation company called Suve Kanalizasyon Idaresi (SKIs). This utility was created during the 1980s and 1990s, beginning with the establishment of ISKI in Istanbul in 1981. The boards of these companies were usually led by the mayor. Smaller cities provide direct services through municipal sewers and disposal. SKI is in the following metropolis: Adana, ASKI - Ankara, Antalya, Bursa, ISKI - Istanbul, DISKI - Diyarbakir, Kayseri, Denizli, Eski? Ehir, Gaziantep, Izmir, Konya, Malatya, Mersin, Samsun, and Sanliurfa.
There were 3,225 municipalities in Turkey in 2008, including some very small municipalities. Prior to municipal elections in March 2009, that number eased 862 through the reclassification of small municipalities with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants, bringing the total number of municipalities to 2,363.
Private sector participation
Private sector participation in the supply of water and sanitation in Turkey is largely limited to the operation of water and wastewater treatment plants without direct contact with customers. Exceptions are lease contracts in Antalya from 1996 to 2002, where private companies directly provide water and sewage services to customers. In 1996 the city signed a lease contract with a private company to provide water and sanitation services for 10 years. The decision to choose the lease was taken on the advice of a British consulting firm without a selection of studies that would compare various alternatives of private sector participation. The contract is awarded after an international competitive offer with three offers submitted. This was awarded to the lowest qualified bidder called ANTSU, a consortium between the French water company Lyonnaise des Eaux (now Suez Environnement) and the Turiksh ENKA company (the latter leaving the consortium shortly after the contract was signed). Ownership of fixed assets with public companies, Antalya Air Supply and Sewerage Authority (ASAT). ANTSU receives approved remuneration per cubic meter of water collected from ASAT customers. Investment is financed partly through loans from the World Bank and the European Investment Bank. There are some minor improvements during the contract period, such as an increase in the continuity of water supplies from 19 to 23 hours per day. However, an important indicator, non-revenue water, stagnant at a high rate of about 60%, while private operators aim to reduce by up to 30% within three years. Half way through the contract period private operators say lost money and asked to increase the remuneration. When the city government refused, ANTSU said it was required under Turkish law to liquidate itself. ASAT then took over responsibility for operations in 2002 and the contract ended in the midst of a compensation claim by both parties. In its completion report for leasing projects, the World Bank concludes that the results are unsatisfactory. However, there is also success: For example, funds provided through World Bank loans contributed to increase the share of sewer connections from zero in 1996 to 35% of urban areas in 2003.
During the contract period, local governments and environmental authorities decided to substantially alter the design of the planned wastewater treatment plant. The original plan had foreseen only a mechanical wastewater treatment plant and a seawater, deemed sufficient by the World Bank to protect the Gulf of Antalya neighborhood. The new designs include active sludge treatment installations that involve higher capital and operating costs. The factory was completed in 2002 and operated by a private company, separate from the leasing company, under a Design-Build-Operate (DBO) contract.
Bulk water supply
The State Hydraulic Works (in Turkish: Devlet Su? Leri or DS?) Is an institution under the Ministry of Environment and Forestry responsible for the utilization of the country's water resources. In addition to the assessment and monitoring of water resources, the production of hydroelectric and bulk water supply for agriculture, DS? is also responsible by law for the supply of domestic water and industry to cities with more than 100,000 residents. In the 2000 census, there were 55 cities as in Turkey. DS? supplying water to 26 million people in 45 cities.
In early 2005, DS? provided annually a total of about 2.5 km of domestic water in accordance with drinking water standards. This figure will reach 5.3 km km³ with the completion of the project under construction, or at the final design stage and planning. Water supply project developed by DS? meet one-third of the requirements for domestic and industrial water consumption.
Training
Turkish Union of Municipalities (TBB) trains water staff and sanitation utilities in commercial and technical aspects. Previously this function has been performed by the Institute of Public Administration for Turkey and the Middle East, TÃÆ'¼rkiye ve Orta Do? U Amme? Daresi EnstitÃÆ'¼sÃÆ'¼ (TODAIE).
Efficiency
The level of non-income water (physical and commercial water loss) in Turkish cities is much higher than in other OECD countries except Mexico. For example, in 2006 it was 45% in Kayseri, 51% in Diyarbakir and 69% in Adana. The non-revenue water level in Istanbul decreased from more than 50% before 1994 to 34% in 2000 due to substantial investment in pipeline replacement.
Financial aspects
Tariff rates and cost recovery in Turkey are relatively high for middle-income countries. However, the state still relies on grants and subsidized loans from external partners to finance its investment needs. Investment is indispensable in the field of wastewater treatment to comply with EU directives.
Recovery rates and charges
Water and sanitation rates in Turkish cities are set by the local government. For most residential users the city imposed tariff increase rates. Commercial users and public institutions are subject to linear tariffs that are close to or higher than the highest blocks of home tariffs. Tariff rates vary across cities. Among 11 of the 16 metropolitan cities, in 2009 the highest water and sanitation rates were charged by Istanbul with 3.04 Turkish Lira (US $ 2.05) per cubic meter and the lowest charged in Diyarbakir with 1.32 Turkish Lira (US $ 0 , 90), each for consumption of 20 cubic meters per month and based on the exchange rate of US $ 1 = TLY1.47 in August 2009. During the 1990s, the period of high inflation in Turkey, some cities have indexed the tariff to inflation to prevent tariff erosion. Below the tariff of the automatic indexing system increases every three months in line with the increase in the consumer price index. The rate of return of utility costs in Turkey is generally high, and some are posting moderate earnings.
Investment
The annual investment in Turkey's water and sanitation sector in the early 2000s reached about US $ 1 billion per year, or about US $ 13 per capita and year. The cost for Turkey to comply with Environmental Acquis Communautaire in water supply and sanitation has been estimated to be in the order of EUR34 billion for 2007-23 or an annual investment of around EUR2 billion. Additional investments in industrial pollution control will be in order or EUR15 billion.
Financing
The main source of financing for urban water supply and sanitation in Turkey is self-financing by utilities, central government transfers, subsidized loans from the Iller Bank (Provincial Bank), as well as grants and loan subsidies and external cooperation. Iller Bank not only provides loans, but also regulates the distribution of central government transfers to the municipality. In 16 Turkish metropolitan cities with city utilities (SKI), 10% of transfers from national governments to city transfers are directly paid to utilities, with the remaining 90% going to the city.
External Cooperation
Turkey's main foreign partners in water supply and sanitation are the EU, France and Germany.
European Union
The EU provides 134.3 million Euro grants in 2007-09 for water supply and sanitation as part of the Instrument for Assistance for Pre-Accession (IPA). The first approved project under the IPA for water and sanitation in Turkey is for the Wastewater Treatment Plant in Ordu. The priority for IPA is reduction of water loss.
The European Investment Bank also provides loans for water supply and sanitation in Turkey. In 2010 there are several projects underway, one of which is the newest Samsun wastewater project signed in 2005 supported by a loan of 30 million Euros. In addition, the Environmental Framework Credits for Iller Bank are estimated to reach Euro 150 million for water, sanitation and solid waste management being prepared in 2010.
French
France provides subsidized loans for urban infrastructure in Turkish cities through Agence FranÃÆ'§aise de DÃÆ'Â © veloppement (AFD). In 2009 AFD provided loans to the cities of Istanbul (120 million Euro), Kayseri (22 million Euro) and Konya (50 million Euros) for urban development, including water supply and sanitation. France also provides a € 16 million loan for mud treatment from a wastewater treatment plant at the Exchange.
German
Between the late 1980s and 2006, the German government and the development of state-owned Bank KfW provided 780 million Euros in grants and soft loans for water supply and sanitation in Turkey with a particular focus on cities in the poor parts of Turkey. The German development cooperation is being implemented by GIZ (technical cooperation) and KfW (financial cooperation) on behalf of the German government.
Germany has funded sanitation projects in Isparta, Tarsus, Siirt, Batman, Van and Diyarbakir, Fethiye and Malatya as well as water supply projects in Istanbul and Adana. In Ankara and Kayseri, water supply and sanitation projects have been supported. The project is also being implemented in Sivas, Siirt, Batman and Van. The first mechanical-biological waste water treatment plant in the Turkish metropolis, commissioned in 1997 in Ankara, has been financed by German financial cooperation.
GIZ has supported the capacity building of staff working in urban utilities in commercial and technical aspects through a project implemented from 2002 to 2006 in collaboration with the TODAIE training institute.
World Bank
The World Bank currently finances the municipal service projects implemented by Iller Bank. The project, initially approved in 2005, received the first loan of US $ 275 million and additional financing of US $ 240 million in 2010. The project finances investments in Antalya cities (water supply and sewerage), Denizli (water supply , sewage and storm water drainage), Mersin (water supply), Beypazari (water supply, sewerage and wastewater treatment), Istanbul (sewerage in the Akfirat area), Kayseri (TPA solid waste) and Kirsehir (drainage water, sewerage and storms).
The Istanbul Municipal Services Project, backed by a loan of US $ 336 million and approved in 2007, owns 43% of the proceeds allocated for water supply and sanitation.
In the past the World Bank funded, among other things, water and sanitation projects in Istanbul from the 1970s to the 1990s, in Izmir and Ankara in the late 1980s and 1990s, as well as in Antalya and Bursa in the late 1990s as well as in the early 2000s. The results of projects in Antalya, involving public-private partnerships, are judged by the World Bank to be unsatisfactory, being too large, having too many goals, due to poor allocation of risk between communities and private partners and because there is a discrepancy between incomes in local currency and debt in foreign currency.
See also
- Water supply and sanitation in Istanbul
References
External links
- DSI - Country Hydraulic Work
- (in Turkish) ISKI - Istanbul's water and sewage utility
- (in Turkish) ASKI - Ankara water and sewer utility
- (in Turkish) IZSU Izmir
- (in Turkish) Adana ASKI
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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