Industrial and organizational psychology ( I/O psychology ), also known as occupational psychology, organizational psychology, and work and organizational psychology, is a discipline applied in psychology. I/O psychology is the science of human behavior related to work and applying psychological theories and principles to organizations and individuals in their workplace as well as to the working life of individuals more generally. I/O psychologists are trained in scientist-practitioner models. They contribute to organizational success by improving performance, motivation, job satisfaction, and occupational safety and health as well as the health and well-being of their employees as a whole. An I/O psychologist conducts research on employee behavior and attitudes, and how this can be improved through recruitment practices, training programs, feedback, and management systems.
I/O psychology is one of the 15 recognized specializations in professional psychology in the United States. It is represented by the 14th Division of the American Psychological Association (APA), officially known as the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP). In the UK, industrial and organizational psychologists are called work psychologists. Occupational psychology in the UK is one of nine 'protected titles' in the profession of "psychologist practitioners" governed by the Board of Health and Nursing Professionals. In the UK, postgraduate programs in psychology, including occupational psychology, are accredited by the British Psychological Society. To be a working psychologist in England, a doctorate is required.
In Australia, the title of organizational psychologist is protected by law, and is regulated by the Australian Health Practitioner's Regulatory Body (AHPRA). Organizational psychology is one of nine areas of specialist support for the practice of psychology in Australia.
In Europe, a person with a specialist EuroPsy Certificate in Work and Organizational Psychology is a fully qualified psychologist and an expert in the field of occupational psychology. Industrial and organizational psychologists achieve the EuroPsy standard noted in the List of European Psychologists and industrial and organizational psychology is one of the three major psychological specialties in Europe.
Video Industrial and organizational psychology
Ikhtisar historis
The historical development of I/O psychology is parallel in the US, UK, Australia, Germany, the Netherlands, and eastern European countries such as Romania. The roots of I/O psychology traced back almost to the beginning of psychology as a science, when Wilhelm Wundt founded one of the first psychological laboratories in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany. In the mid-1880s, Wundt trained two psychologists, Hugo MÃÆ'¼nsterberg and James McKeen Cattell, who had a major influence on the emergence of I/O psychology.
Instead of seeing performance differences as human "mistakes," Cattell was one of the first to recognize the importance of differences among individuals as a way to better understand work behavior. Walter Dill Scott, a contemporary of Cattell, was elected President of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1919, arguably the most prominent I/O psychologist of his time. Scott, along with Walter Van Dyke Bingham, worked at the Carnegie Institute of Technology, developing methods for selecting and training sales staff.
The "industrial" side of I/O psychology comes from research on individual differences, assessments, and work performance predictions. Industrial psychology crystallized during World War I, in response to the need to quickly assign new troops to duty. Scott and Bingham volunteered to help test and deploy more than a million army recruits. In 1917, along with other prominent psychologists, they adapted the famous Stanford-Binet intelligence test, designed to test one individual at a time, to make it suitable for group testing. The new test is called Army Alpha.
After the War, the growing industrial base in the US was a source of momentum for what came to be called industrial psychology. The private industry is set to emulate the successful testing of army personnel. A mental ability test soon becomes commonplace in the work environment.
Elton Mayo found that break time boosted morale and reduced the turnaround at the Philadelphia textile factory. He then joins the ongoing Hawthorne study, where he becomes interested in how workers' emotions and informal relationships affect productivity. The results of this study led to the movement of human relationships.
World War II brought a renewed interest in capability testing (to accurately place recruitment in new technologically advanced military jobs), the introduction of a scoring center, and attention with enthusiasm and exhaustion in war industry workers.
The industrial psychology division of the former US Applied Psychology Association became a division within APA, becoming the 14th Division of APA. Originally called the Division of Industrial and Business Psychology. In 1962, the name was changed to the Division of Industrial Psychology. In 1973, his name was changed again, this time being the Division of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. In 1982, the unit became more independent of APA, and its name was changed again, this time being the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology.
The change of division names from "industrial psychology" to "industrial and organizational psychology" reflects a shift in the work of industrial psychologists who initially deal with work behavior from an individual perspective, examining the performance and attitudes of individual workers. Their work became more widespread. Group behavior in the workplace is a worthy subject of study. The emphasis on "organization" underscores the fact that when someone joins an organization (eg, the organization that employs it), it will be exposed to general goals and a set of general operating procedures. In the 1970s in the UK, reference work psychology became more common than I/O psychology.
According to Bryan and Vinchur, "while organizational psychology increased in popularity through the [1960s and 1970s], research and practice in the traditional field of industrial psychology continues, especially driven by labor law and legal matters" (page 53). There is a focus on fairness and validity in the selection effort as well as in job analysis that supports the selection instrument. For example, psychology i/o shows increased interest in behavior-oriented scales. What criticisms exist? I/o psychology accuses discipline of being responsive only with management concerns.
From 1980 to 2010, other changes in the psychology of i/o took place. Researchers are increasingly adopting a multi-level approach, trying to understand the behavioral phenomena of both the organizational level and the level of individual workers. There is also an increased interest in the needs and expectations of employees as individuals. For example, emphasis on organizational justice and deeply rooted psychological contracts, as well as more traditional concerns about selection and training. Methodological innovations (eg, meta-analysis, structural equation modeling) are adopted. With the passage of the American Act with Disability in 1990 and parallel legislation elsewhere in the world, i/o psychology sees an increasing emphasis on "justice in personnel decisions." Research training is increasingly dependent on advances in educational psychology and cognitive science.
Maps Industrial and organizational psychology
Research method
As described above, I/O psychologists are trained in scientist-practitioner models. I/O psychologists rely on various methods to conduct organizational research. Study designs used by I/O psychologists include surveys, experiments, quasi-experiments, and observational studies. I/O psychologists rely on diverse data sources including human assessments, historical databases, objective measures of work performance (eg, sales volume), and questionnaires and surveys.
I/O researchers used quantitative statistical methods. Quantitative methods used in I/O psychology include correlation, multiple regression, and variance analysis. More advanced statistical methods used in I/O research include logistic regression, structural equation modeling, and hierarchical linear modeling (HLM, also known as multilevel modeling). I/O research also uses meta-analysis. I/O psychologists also use psychometric methods including methods associated with classical test theory, generalization theory, and theory of goods response (IRT).
I/O psychologists also use qualitative methods, which mostly involve focus groups, interviews, and case studies. I/O research on organizational culture research has used ethnographic techniques and participant observation. The qualitative technique associated with I/O psychology is the Flanagan Critical Incident Technique. I/O psychologists sometimes use quantitative and qualitative methods in concert. The OHP researchers also combine and coordinate quantitative and qualitative methods in one study.
Topic
Job analysis
Job analysis includes a number of different methods. This primarily involves gathering systematic information about a job. Job-oriented job analysis involves examining the tasks, tasks and/or competencies required by the job being assessed. In contrast, work-oriented job analysis involves examining the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) required to successfully perform the job. Information obtained from job analysis is used for many purposes, including the creation of job-relevant selection procedures, performance appraisals and criteria they need, and the development of training programs.
Recruitment and selection of personnel
I/O psychologists usually work with human resources specialists to design (a) the recruitment process and (b) personnel selection systems. Recruitment of personnel is the process of identifying eligible candidates in the workforce and asking them to apply for work within the organization. The process of recruiting personnel includes developing job announcements, placing advertisements, defining key qualifications for applicants, and screening unqualified applicants.
Choice of personnel is a systematic process of hiring and promoting personnel. The personnel selection system uses evidence-based practice to determine the most qualified candidates. Selection of personnel involves both new employees and individuals who can be promoted from within the organization. Common selection tools include capability tests (eg, cognitive, physical, or psycho-motor), knowledge tests, personality tests, structured interviews, systematic biographical data collection, and work samples. I/O psychologists should evaluate evidence of the extent to which the selection tools predict job performance.
Employee selection procedures are usually validated, that is, displayed as work relevant to the selection of personnel, using one or more of the following types of validity: content validity, construct validity, and/or validity related criteria. I/O psychologists must adhere to professional standards in personnel selection efforts. SIOP (eg, Principles for validation and use of personnel selection procedures ) and APA together with the National Council on Measurement in Education (eg, Standards for educational and psychological testing are sources from The Equal Employment Opportunities Commission Guideline uniform is also influential in guiding personnel selection decisions.
A meta-analysis of the selection method found that general mental ability is the best overall predictor of achievement and achievement in training.
Performance/management ratings
Performance appraisal or performance evaluation is a process in which the behavior or work of an individual or group is assessed against the expectations of the manager and others for the job. Performance appraisals are often used in promotion and compensation decisions, to help design and validate personnel selection procedures, and for performance management. Performance management is the process of providing performance feedback relative to expectations, and information relevant to improvement (eg, coaching, mentoring). Performance management can also include documenting and tracking performance information for organizational evaluation purposes.
An I/O psychologist will typically use information from job analysis to determine job performance dimensions, and then build an assessment scale to illustrate each level of performance for the job. Often, I/O psychologists will be responsible for training organizational personnel how to use performance appraisal instruments, including ways to minimize bias when using rank scales, and how to provide effective performance feedback.
Individual ratings and psychometry
Individual judgments involve measuring individual differences. I/O psychologists conduct individual assessments to evaluate differences between candidates for employment as well as differences between employees. The measured construction is related to job performance. With candidates for employment, individual assessments are often part of the personnel selection process. This assessment may include written tests, aptitude tests, physical tests, psycho-motor tests, personality tests, integrity and reliability tests, work samples, simulations, and assessment centers.
Occupational health and wellbeing
I/O psychologists are concerned with work health and wellbeing. At the beginning of the 20th century, Arthur Kornhauser examined the impact on the productivity of employing unstable workers mentally. Kornhauser also examined the relationship between industrial working conditions and mental health as well as spillover to the personal lives of workers having unsatisfactory jobs.
Recently, I/O researchers have found that staying motivated during working hours is associated with better work-related behaviors and subjective wellbeing and functioning more effectively in the family domain. Trait vigor and recovery experience after work related to the spirit in the workplace. Job satisfaction has also been found to be related to life satisfaction, happiness, well-being and positive influence, and no negative impact. Other studies have shown that among older worker activities such as volunteers and participating in social clubs are associated with decreased depressive symptoms over the next two years. Research on job change shows that the mobility between, but not within, the organization is associated with burnout.
Workplace oppression, aggression and violence
I/O psychologists are concerned with topics related to workplace bullying, aggression, and violence. For example, I/O research finds that exposure to workplace violence raises ruminative thinking, and ruminative thought, in turn, is associated with poor welfare. I/O research has found that interpersonal aggressive behavior is associated with poorer team performance.
Remuneration and compensation
Compensation includes wages or salaries, bonuses, pension/pension contributions, and employee benefits that can be converted into cash or replace living expenses. I/O psychologists may be required to conduct a job evaluation for the purpose of determining the extent and range of compensation. I/O psychologist may also serve as an expert witness in cases of wage discrimination, when the difference in pay for a similar job is alleged by the employee.
Training and training evaluation
Training involves systematic teaching of skills, concepts, or attitudes that result in improved performance in other environments. Since many people employed for a job are inexperienced in all tasks required by the job, training may be needed to help individuals do the job effectively. Evidence shows that training is often effective, and it works in terms of higher net sales and gross profit per employee.
Similar to performance management (see above), an I/O psychologist will use job analysis in concert with the application of instructional design principles to create an effective training program. The training program will likely include a summative evaluation at its conclusion to ensure that trainees have met the training objectives and can perform target job duties at an acceptable level. Training programs often include formative evaluations to assess the effects of training as a result of training. Formative evaluation can be used to find problems in training procedures and help I/O psychologists make corrective adjustments while training is in progress.
The foundation for a training program is learning. Learning outcomes can be organized into three broad categories: cognitive, skill, and affective outcomes. Cognitive training is aimed at instilling declarative knowledge or knowledge of rules, facts, and principles (eg, training of police officers including court law and procedures). Skills-based training aims to instill procedural knowledge (eg skills required to use specialized tools) or technical skills (eg, understand how software programs work). Affective training deals with teaching individuals to develop certain attitudes or beliefs that influence trainees to behave in a certain way (eg, showing commitment to the organization, valuing diversity).
Needs assessment, analysis of corporate and individual objectives, often carried out prior to the development of training programs. In addition, careful needs analysis needs to be developed to develop a systematic understanding of where training is needed, what to teach, and who to train. Training needs analysis usually involves a three-step process that includes organizational analysis, task analysis and person analysis.
Organizational analysis is the examination of organizational goals and resources as well as the organizational environment. The results of organizational analysis help determine where training should be directed. The analysis identifies the training needs of different departments or subunits. It systematically assesses the support of managers, peers, and technology for training transfer. Organizational analysis also takes into account the organizational climate and its subunits. For example, if a climate for safety is emphasized throughout an organization or in an organizational sub unit (eg, production), then training needs will likely reflect an emphasis on safety. Task analysis uses job analysis results to determine what is required for successful job performance, contribute to training content. As more organizations seek to identify the "core competencies" required for all jobs, task analysis can also include competency assessments. A person's analysis identifies which individuals within an organization should receive training and what type of instruction they need. Employee needs can be assessed using a variety of methods that identify weaknesses that training can address.
Workplace motivation
Work motivation reflects the energy that a person implements "to initiate work-related behaviors, and to determine the shape, direction, intensity, and duration" Understanding what motivates the employees of the organization is the center of I/O psychology. Motivation is generally regarded as a theoretical construct that encourages behavior. Incentives are anticipated benefits that allegedly make a person behave in a certain way. Motivation varies among individuals. Studying its influence on behavior, it must be checked along with environmental capabilities and influences. Because of the role of motivation in influencing behavior and performance in the workplace, many organizations create work environments to encourage productive behavior and prevent unproductive behavior.
Motivation involves three psychological processes: passion, direction, and intensity. Passion is the initiates' actions. This is often driven by a person's need or desire for something lost from his or her life, in whole or in part. Referrals refer to the path employees take in achieving the goals they set for themselves. Intensity is the amount of energy employees put into work performance directed at the goal. The level of intensity often reflects the importance and difficulty of the goal. This psychological process involves four factors. First, motivation serves to direct attention, focus on specific issues, people, tasks, etc. Second, it serves to stimulate effort. Third, motivation affects persistence. Finally, motivation influences the choice and application of task-related strategies.
Work stress
I/O psychologists engage in research and practice work stress and design individual and organizational interventions to manage and reduce stress levels and improve productivity, performance, health and well-being. Job stress can have implications for organizational performance because the emotions of work stress are evoked. For example, job stressors such as conflict with supervisors can trigger anger which in turn motivates counterproductive workplace behaviors. I/O studies have examined the relationship between job stressors and aggression, theft, substance abuse, and depressive symptoms. A number of models have been developed to describe work stress processes, including environmental-match models and demand control models. The models became the basis for the emergence, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, from new disciplines relevant to research on work stress; discipline, occupational health psychology, is a branch of psychology, health psychology, and occupational medicine.
Research has also examined job stress in certain occupations, including police, general practitioners, and dentists. Another concern is the relationship of work stress with family life. Other studies have examined gender differences in leadership styles and job stresses and strains in the male-female dominated industry context, and difficulties associated with unemployment. I/O psychology is also concerned with the relationship of work stress to career advancement.
Workplace safety
Accidents and safety at work have become an area of ​​interest for I/O psychology. Examples of the dangers of psychosocial injury that appeal to I/O psychology include fatigue, workplace violence, workplace intimidation, and night shift. I/O researchers do a "stress audit" that can help organizations stay in compliance with safety regulations. Psychosocial hazards may affect musculoskeletal disorders. Psychosocial factors associated with accident risk are safety climates, which refers to employee perceptions of the extent to which their work organization prioritizes safety. Instead, the psychosocial safety climate refers to management's "policies, practices, and procedures" that aim to protect the workers' psychological health. Research on safety leadership is also relevant to I/O psychology. Research shows that transformational-oriented transformational leadership is associated with a positive safety climate and safe worker practices.
Organizational culture
Organizational culture has been described as a set of assumptions shared by individuals within an organization; Assumptions affect the interpretation and actions that determine the appropriate behavior for various situations. Organizational culture has been shown to influence important organizational outcomes such as performance, attractiveness, recruitment, retention, employee satisfaction, and employee well-being. There are three levels of organizational culture: artifacts, shared values, and basic beliefs and assumptions. The artifact consists of the physical components of the organization that convey the cultural meaning. Shares distributed are individual preferences regarding certain aspects of organizational culture (eg, loyalty, customer service). Basic beliefs and assumptions include individual impressions of trust and organizational support, and are often deeply embedded in organizational culture.
In addition to the culture as a whole, the organization also has a subculture. Examples of subcultures include corporate culture, departmental culture, local culture, and culture-related issues. Although there is no single "type" of organizational culture, some researchers have developed models to describe different organizational cultures.
Group behavior
Group behavior involves the interaction of individuals collectively. Individual opinions, attitudes, and adaptations influence group behavior and group behavior, in turn, affect those opinions, etc. Interaction is considered to satisfy some of the satisfaction needs in individuals who are part of the collective. The specific areas of I/O research in group behavior are team dynamics and team effectiveness.
Team effectiveness
Organizations often organize teams because teams can achieve a much larger amount of work in a short period of time than can be achieved by individuals. I/O research has examined the dangerous workplace aggression against team performance.
Team composition
The selection of individuals to be assigned to a special team is imposed on the effectiveness of the teams. Aspects of team composition to consider during the team selection process include team members' knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs) as well as their personalities and attitudes. To achieve high-quality results, teams built with members with higher skill levels are more likely to be effective than teams built around lower-skilled members; teams that include members with a diversity of skills also tend to show improvement in team performance. Moreover, the higher cognitive ability level of team members has been shown to correlate consistently with increasing work group effectiveness. Personality and attitudes of team members have also been studied. For example, mutually supportive personality factors, conscience, extraversion, and emotional stability are linked to better team performance.
Design assignment
The fundamental question in the design of team assignments is whether a task is even suitable for a team. Tasks requiring independent-dominated work should be left to the individual, and the tasks of the team should include tasks that consist primarily of interdependent work. When assigned tasks are appropriate for the team, task design can play a key role in team effectiveness.
Job characteristics theory identifies the core work dimensions that affect motivation, satisfaction, performance, etc. These dimensions include variation of skills, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback. Dimensions map well to the team environment. Individual contributors who perform challenging, interesting, and interesting team tasks are more likely to be motivated to make bigger efforts and perform better than team members who work on tasks that do not have these characteristics.
Organizational resources
Organizational support systems affect team effectiveness and provide resources to teams operating in multi-team environments. During a new team charter, the organization's activation resources were first identified. Examples of possible resources include facilities, equipment, information, training, and leadership. Team-specific resources (for example, budgetary resources, human resources) are usually available. The team-specific human resources represent individual contributors who are selected to become team members. Intra-team processes (eg, task design, assignment assignments) involve the team's specific resources.
The team also works in a dynamic multi-team environment. Teams often have to respond to changing organizational contingencies. Contingencies that affect teams include constraints arising from the conditions under which organizational resources are not exclusively allocated to particular teams. When resources are scarce, they must be shared by several teams.
Team rewards
Organizational reward systems encourage the strengthening and enhancement of the efforts of each team member; Such efforts contribute to achieving team goals. In other words, the rewards given to individual team members must depend on the performance of the entire team.
Some design elements are needed to enable the organization's reward system to operate successfully. First, for collective appraisal to be appropriate for each team member, group assignments must be highly interdependent. If this does not happen, individual judgment is more appropriate than the team's assessment. Second, the individual level rewards system and team-level reward system must be compatible. For example, it is unfair to reward the whole team for a job well done if only one team member does most of the work. The team members will most likely see the team and teamwork negatively, and do not want to work on teams in the future. Third, organizational culture must be created in such a way as to support and reward employees who believe in the value of teamwork and who maintain a positive attitude toward team-based rewards.
Team goals
Objectives potentially motivate team members when goals contain three elements: difficulty, acceptability, and specificity. Under difficult goal conditions, teams with more committed members tend to outperform teams with less committed members. When team members commit to team goals, team effectiveness is a function of how members are mutually supportive of one another. The goals of each team member and team goals interact with each other. Team and individual goals must be coordinated. Individual targets should be consistent with team goals in order for teams to be effective.
Job Satisfaction and Commitment
Job satisfaction is often considered to reflect the extent to which the worker likes his job, or individual aspects or aspects of the job. This is one of the most widely researched topics in I/O psychology. Job satisfaction has theoretical and practical uses for the field. It has been linked to important work outcomes including attitude variables (eg, job engagement, organizational commitment), absenteeism, shifting desire, actual turnover, job performance, and tension. A meta-analysis finds job satisfaction linked to life satisfaction, happiness, positive influence, and no negative impact.
Productive behavior
Productive behavior is defined as the behavior of employees who contribute positively to the goals and objectives of the organization. When an employee starts a new job, there is a transitional period in which he can not contribute significantly. To help with this transition, an employee usually requires job-related training. In financial terms, productive behavior represents the point at which an organization begins to achieve some of the investment returns made to new employees. I/O psychologists typically focus more on productive behavior than on job or task performance, including in the role of and extra role performance. The performance in the role tells managers how well an employee performs the required aspects of work; extra-role performance includes unnecessary job behavior but still contributes to organizational effectiveness. Considering the performance of roles and roles outside the role, an I/O psychologist can assess employee effectiveness (how well they do what they have to do), efficiency (output to relative input), and productivity (how much they help the organization achieve its goals). Three forms of productive behavior that I/O psychologists often evaluate include job performance, organizational citizenship behavior (see below), and innovation.
Job performance
Job performance represents behaviors that involve employees at work that contribute to organizational goals. This behavior is formally evaluated by the organization as part of the employee's responsibilities. To understand and ultimately predict job performance, it is important to be precise when defining the term. Job performance is about behaviors that are in the employee's control and not about the outcomes (effectiveness), the costs involved in achieving the outcome (productivity), the results that can be achieved within a period of time (efficiency), or the value of the place of the organization at the level of performance, effectiveness, certain productivity or efficiency (utility).
To model job performance, researchers have attempted to define a set of common dimensions for all jobs. Using a common set of dimensions provides a consistent basis for assessing performance and enabling performance comparisons across jobs. Performance is usually divided into two main categories: roles (technical aspects of the job) and extra roles (non-technical skills such as communication skills and being a good team member). Although differences in this behavior have been challenged, this is generally done by employees and management. The performance model by Campbell breaks performance into extra role and role categories. Campbell labels task-specific job tasks and non-job-specific task capabilities as dimensions in the role, while written and oral communication, demonstrates effort, maintains personal discipline, facilitates peer and team performance, supervision and leadership and management and administration are labeled as extra dimensions role. Murphy's performance performance model also undermines job performance into role categories and extra roles. However, task-oriented behaviors make up role categories and extra role categories including interpersonal oriented behavior, down-time behavior and harmful and malicious behavior. However, it has been challenged whether job performance measurements are usually done through pencil/paper tests, job skill tests, on-site direct tests, off-site hands-on tests, high-precision simulations, symbolic simulations, job rankings and global rankings. These tools are often used to evaluate performance on specific tasks and overall job performance. Van Dyne and LePine developed a measurement model in which overall job performance was evaluated using Campbell in role and extra-role categories. Here, performance in the role is reflected through how well "employees meet their performance expectations and perform well on tasks that make up employee work." Dimensions of how well employees help others with their work for the benefit of the group, if the employee voices new ideas for projects or changes to the procedure and whether the employee is attending functions that help the group develop extra-role categories.
To assess job performance, reliable and valid steps must be established. While there are many sources of error with performance appraisals, errors can be reduced through the training of assessors and through the use of behavior-oriented scales. Such a scale can be used to clearly define behavior that is poor, average, and superior performance. Additional factors that complicate job performance measurement include job performance instability over time due to forces such as changes in performance criteria, the structure of the work itself and the limitation of variation in individual performance by organizational strength. These factors include errors in job measurement techniques, poor acceptance and justification of performance and lack of importance of individual performance.
The job performance determinant consists of factors related to individual workers as well as environmental factors in the workplace. According to Campbell's Model of The Determinant of Job Performance, job performance is the result of interaction between declarative knowledge (knowledge of facts or things), procedural knowledge (knowledge of what needs to be done and how to do it), and motivation (reflects employee choices regarding whether to spend business, the level of effort to spend, and whether to survive with the level of business selected). The interaction between these factors suggests that an employee can, for example, have a low level of declarative knowledge, but may still have a high level of performance if employees have high levels of knowledge and procedural motivation.
Regardless of the work, three determinants stand out as performance forecasters: (1) general mental ability (especially for higher jobs in complexity); (2) work experience (although there is a decreasing return law); and (3) the personality traits of consciousness (people who are reliable and achievement-oriented, who plan well). These determinants seem to affect performance largely through the acquisition and use of job knowledge and motivation to do well. Furthermore, the expansion of research areas in job performance determinants includes emotional intelligence.
Organizational citizenship behavior
Organizational citizenship behavior (OCBs) is another form of workplace behavior that involves an I/O psychologist. OCB tends to be beneficial to both organizations and other workers. Dennis Organ (1988) defines OCBs as "discretionary individual behavior, not directly or explicitly acknowledged by formal reward systems, and that in aggregates promotes effective functioning of the organization." Behavior that qualifies as OCB can fall into one of the following five categories: altruism, courtesy, sportsmanship, thoroughness, and citizenship virtue. The OCB has also been categorized in other ways as well, for example, by the intended targets (individual, supervisor, and organization as a whole.) Other alternative ways of categorizing OCB include "OCB compulsory", involved in coercion persuasion or peer pressure rather than volition The extent to which the OCB is voluntary has become a matter of debate.
Other research has shown that some employees do OCB to influence how they are viewed within the organization. While this behavior is not formally part of the job description, doing so may affect performance appraisals. Researchers have raised the view that employees are involved in OCB as a form of "impression management," a term coined by Erving Goffman. Goffman defines impression management as "the way in which the individual... presents himself and his activity to others, the ways in which he guides and controls the impression they form of him, and the things he may and should not do while maintaining his performance in front of them Some researchers have hypothesized that OCB is not done because of good intentions, positive influences, etc., but as a way to be noticed by others, including supervisors.
Innovation
Industrial and organizational psychologists consider innovation, more often than not, less important and often unproductive variables to be included in performing job performance appraisals when irrelevant to the main job function in which the given job exists. Nevertheless, I/O psychologists see the value of those variables in which considerations, whether their reliability and validity are questioned, achieve statistically significant probabilities that results are not due to chance, and that can be replicated reliably with statistically significant ratios. reliability, and it is the court to ask questions about its reliability and validity test, the I/O psychologist behind its use will be able to keep it before the court in the belief that it will stand before such a reliable and valid tribunal.
Four qualities are generally associated with creative and innovative behavior by individuals:
- Skills that are relevant to the task (general mental skills and job-specific knowledge). Specific tasks and subject-specific knowledge are most often gained through higher education; however, it can also be gained by mentoring and experience in a particular field.
- Relevant creativity skills (ability to concentrate on problems for long periods of time, to leave unproductive searches, and temporarily get rid of stubborn issues). The ability to override stubborn problems is called by Jex & amp; Britt as a productive forgetful. Creativity-related skills also require individual contributors to evaluate the problem from some lucrative point. One must be able to take the perspective of various users. For example, an Operations Manager who analyzes reporting issues and develops innovative solutions will take into account the perspectives of sales, assistant, financial, compensation, and compliance officers.
- Job motivation (internal desire to perform task and pleasure level).
At the organizational level, a study by Damanpour identifies four specific characteristics that can predict innovation:
- Population with high level technical knowledge
- Organization level specialization
- The organizational level communicates externally
- Functional Dysfunctional.
Counterproductive behavior
Behavioral counterproductive behavior (CWB) can be defined as employee behavior as opposed to organizational goals. This behavior can be intentional or unintentional and the result of various underlying causes and motivations. Some CWBs have instrumental motivation (eg, theft). It has been proposed that people-by-environment interactions can be used to explain a variety of counterproductive behaviors (Fox and Spector, 1999). For example, an employee who sabotages the work of another employee can do so because of the under-supervision (environment) and underlying psychopathology (people) working together to generate counterproductive behavior. There is evidence that emotional responses (eg, anger) to job stress (eg, unfair treatment) can motivate CWBs.
The forms of counterproductive behavior with the most empirical examination are ineffective job performance, absenteeism, job turnover, and accidents. Less common but potentially more destructive forms of counterproductive behavior have also been investigated including violence and sexual harassment.
Leadership
In I/O psychology, leadership can be defined as the process of influencing others to agree on common goals, and working toward common goals. Differences must be made between leadership and management. The manager processes administrative tasks and manages the work environment. Although leaders may be asked to perform managerial tasks as well, leaders typically focus on followers who inspire and create shared organizational culture and values. Managers deal with complexity, while leaders deal with starting and adapting to change. Managers perform the task of planning, budgeting, organizing, staffing, controlling and problem solving. Instead, leaders perform the task of setting a direction or vision, aligning people with a common goal, communicating, and motivating.
Approaches to studying leadership in I/O psychology can be broadly classified into three categories: Lead-focused approaches, contingency-focused approaches, and follower-focused approaches.
Leader-focused approach
A leader-focused approach looks at organizational leaders to determine effective leadership characteristics. According to the nature approach, more effective leaders have certain qualities less possessed by less effective leaders. More recently, this approach has been used to predict the emergence of leaders. The following characteristics have been identified as traits that predict leader appearance when there is no formal leader: high intelligence, high need for dominance, high self-motivation, and social perceptive. Another leader-focused approach is the behavioral approach that focuses on behavior that differentiates effectively from ineffective leaders. There are two categories of leadership behaviors: (1) considerations; and (2) start the structure. The behaviors associated with the category of considerations include showing their subordinates are valued and that leaders care about them. An example of considerate behavior is showing compassion when problems arise inside or outside the office. Behavior associated with early structure categories includes facilitating group task performance. One example of the behavior of initiation structures is to meet one on one with subordinates to explain expectations and goals. The last approach that focuses on leaders is strength and influence . To be most effective, a leader must be able to influence others to behave in a way that is consistent with the mission and goals of the organization. How influential a leader can depend on their social strength or their potential to influence their subordinates. There are six power bases: coercive force, gift power, legitimate power, expert power, reference strength, and information power. A leader can use several different tactics to influence others in an organization. These common tactics include: rational persuasion, inspirational attraction, consultation, ingratiation, exchange, personal attraction, coalition, legitimacy, and pressure. Contingency focus approach
Of the 3 leadership approaches, a contingency-focused approach is the most common over the past 30 years. Contingency-focused theories underlie the effectiveness of a leader on their ability to assess the situation and adjust their behavior accordingly. These theories assume that an effective leader can accurately "read" the situation and skillfully use a leadership style that meets the needs of the individuals involved and the task at hand. A brief introduction to the most prominent contingency theories will follow.
Fiedler's Contingency Theory states that the effectiveness of a leader depends on the interaction between their characteristics and the characteristics of the situation. Path-Goal Theory asserts that the leader's role is to help his subordinates achieve their goals. To do this effectively, leaders must skillfully select from four different leadership styles to meet situational factors. Situational factors are products of subordinate characteristics and environmental characteristics. The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) model focuses on how the leader-subordinate relationship develops. In general, when subordinates work well or when there is a positive exchange between leaders and subordinates, their relationships are strengthened, performance and job satisfaction are enhanced, and subordinates will feel more commitment to leaders and organizations as a whole. Vroom-Yetton-Jago Model focuses on decision making with respect to set of eligibility which consists of situational attributes.
In addition to the approach that focuses on the contingencies mentioned, there is a high level of interest paid to the three new approaches that have just emerged. The first is transformational leadership, which presupposes that there is a certain leadership trait that inspires subordinates to do beyond their means. The second is transactional leadership, most concerned with keeping subordinates in line with organizational deadlines and policies. This type of leader fills more of a managerial role and does not have the qualities required to inspire subordinates and drive meaningful change. And the third is authentic leadership centered around empathy and the value or character of the leader. If leaders understand their followers, they can inspire subordinates by developing personal relationships and guiding them to share in the team's vision and goals. Although there have been a limited number of studies conducted on these theories, they are sure to receive continued attention because of the mature field of I/O psychology.
Follower-focused approach
The facilitator-focused approach looks at the process by which leaders motivate followers, and lead the team to achieve common goals. Understandably, the area of ​​leadership motivation is very interesting from the abundant research literature in the domains of motivation in I/O psychology. Because leaders are responsible for their followers' ability to achieve organizational goals, their ability to motivate their followers is an important factor of leadership effectiveness. Similarly, the field of team leadership is very interesting from team research and team effectiveness in I/O psychology. Because organizational employees are often structured in teams, leaders need to be aware of the potential benefits and traps working in teams, how teams evolve, how to meet the needs of team members, and ultimately how to bring team effectiveness and performance..
The growing I/O research area in the team leadership area is in leading virtual teams, where people on the team are geographically distributed at various distances and sometimes even countries. While technological advances have enabled the leadership process to take place in such a virtual context, they present new challenges for leaders as well, such as the need to use technology to build relationships with followers, and influence followers when faced with a face that is limited (or not) advance.
Organizational development
I/O psychologists are also concerned about organizational change. This effort, called organizational development (OD). Tools used to advance organizational development include survey feedback techniques. This technique involves periodic assessment (with surveys) of employee attitudes and feelings. The results are presented to the organization's stakeholders, who may wish to bring the organization in a certain direction. Another tool is team building techniques. Because many if not most of the tasks within the organization are solved by small groups and/or teams, building a team is critical to organizational success. To improve team morale and problem-solving skills, I/O psychologists help the group to build self-confidence, group cohesion, and work effectiveness.
Relationship with organizational behavior
I/O psychology and organizational behavior have manifested some overlap. That overlap caused confusion about how the two disciplines were different.
Training
The minimum requirement to work as an I/O psychologist is a master's degree. Typically, this degree takes about 2-3 years to complete. Of all the degrees given in the psychology of I/O each year, about two-thirds are at the master's level.
A comprehensive list of US and Canadian masters and doctoral programs can be found on the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) website. Admission to I/O PhD psychology programs is very competitive considering many programs receive a small number of applicants each year.
There are undergraduate courses in I/O psychology outside the US and Canada. The SIOP website also provides a complete list of I/O programs in many other countries.
Competence
There are many different sets of competencies for different specializations in I/O psychology and I/O psychologists are versatile behavioral scientists. For example, an I/O psychologist specializing in selection and hiring should have the expertise in finding the best talent for the organization and getting everyone on board while he may not need to know much about executive coaching. Some I/O psychologists specialize in specific areas of consultation while others tend to generalize their areas of expertise. There are basic skills and knowledge needed by an individual to become an effective I/O psychologist, which includes becoming an independent learner, interpersonal skills (eg listening skills), and general consultancy skills (eg skills and knowledge in problem areas).
Job prospects
According to the US Department of Labor Labor Statistics Bureau, I/O psychology is the fastest growing job in the United States, based on projections between 2012 and 2022. In a 2006 salary survey, the average salary for a PhD in I/O Psychology was $ 98,000 ; for a master level I/O psychologist is $ 72,000. The highest paid physiologist I/O PhD in private industry works in pharmaceuticals and averages about $ 151,000 per year; the average salary for an entrepreneur consultant is $ 150,000; those who work in retail, energy, and manufacturing follow in the back, averaging about $ 133,000. The lowest income is found in the state and local government positions, averaging about $ 77,000. In 2005, I/O psychologists whose primary responsibility was teaching in private and public colleges and universities often earned additional income from consultations with government and industry. Work opportunities have stabilized increasing over the past few years
Ethics
An I/O psychologist, whether an academician, a consultant, or an employee, should maintain high ethical standards. The ethical principles of APA apply to I/O psychologists. For example, ethically, I/O psychologists may only accept qualified projects. With more and more organizations becoming global, it is important that when an I/O psychologist works outside his home country, the psychologist is aware of the rules, rules, and cultures of the organization and the country in which the psychologist works, while following the ethical standards set at home.
See also
References
- Foot Records
Further reading
External links
- The Canadian Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology
- The British Psychological Society of Occupational Psychology (DOP) website
- Society for Industry & amp; Organizational Psychology of South Africa
- The European Association of Organizational Work and Psychology
- Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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