The Tohono O'odham ( or ) is a Native American in the Sonoran Desert, located in the state of Arizona and Mexico state of Sonora. Tohono O'odham means "Desert People." The federally recognized tribe is known as the Tohono O'odham Nation.
Tohono Tanio O'odham's tribal government and most people have rejected the English name of the Papago customs used by Europeans after being adopted by the Spanish conquerors from hearing other Piman bands mention them. Pima is a competitor and refers to people like Ba: baw? Ko'a , which means "eat tepo beans." The word was spoken papago by Spanish and was adopted by later English speakers.
The Tohono O'odham Nation, or Tohono O'odham Indian Reservation, is a major reservation located in southern Arizona, covering parts of Pima County, Pinal County, and Maricopa County.
Video Tohono O'odham
Budaya
The Tohono O'odham shares the linguistic and cultural roots with closely related Akimel O'odham (People of the River), whose land lies south of the present Phoenix, along the lower Gila River. Sobaipuri is the second ancestor of Tohono O'odham and Akimel O'odham, and they live along the southern Arizona main river. Ancient pictographs adorn the rocky walls that stand out from the desert near the Baboquivari Mountains.
The debate surrounds the origins of O'odham. The claim that O'odham moved north recently 300 years ago is competing with claims that the Hohokam, who left the Casa Grande Ruins, were their ancestors. Recent research on Sobaipuri, now extinct relatives of O'odham, shows that they were present in considerable numbers in the valley of the southern Arizona river in the 15th century.
In the Library of Santa Barbara Mission Archives is the material collected by a Franciscan monk who works among Tohono O'odham. This includes scientific volumes and monographs. The Etnohistorical Research Office, located at the Arizona State Museum on the campus of the University of Arizona, has done a documentary history of O'odham, offering translated colonial documents that discuss Spanish relations with O'odham in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. century.
Historically, the O'odham-speaking people were at odds with the nomadic Apache from the late seventeenth to early twentieth century. The O'odham family are sedentary farmers who grow crops. According to their history, Apache will attack when they lack food, or bad hunt. Conflict with European settlers who penetrated their land caused O'odham and Apache to find common interests. The word O'odham for Apache 'enemies' is ob. The relationship between O'odham and Apache was very tense after 92 O'odham joined the Mexicans and Anglo-Americans and killed nearly 144 Apache during the Camp Grant massacre in 1871. All but eight of the dead were women and children -child; 29 children were arrested and sold as slaves in Mexico by O'odham.
Much evidence suggests that O'odham and Apache were friendly and engaged in the exchange of goods and marriage partners before the end of the seventeenth century. Oral history of O'odham, however, shows that marriage results between intercessions between two tribes. It is typical for women and children to be held captive in raids, to be used as slaves by the winners. Often women are married to tribes in which they are held and assimilated under pressure. Both tribes incorporate "enemies" and their children into their culture.
O'odham's music and dance activities do not have "big ritual gear that needs attention" and big ceremonies like pow-wows. Instead, they wear muted white clay. O'odham's songs were accompanied by hardwood shavings and drums on the upside-down basket, both of which lacked resonance and were "swallowed by the desert floor." Dancing features skipping and lugging quietly with bare feet on dry land, raised dust is believed to rise into the atmosphere and helps in forming rain clouds.
The original O'odham diet consists of wild game, insects, and wild plants available in the area. Through foraging, O'odham eats a variety of regional crops, such as: iron ore, mesquite honey, pork potatoes, and cactus-pipe fruits. While Southwestern USA does not have an ideal climate for crop cultivation, O'odham grows white bean plants, Papago peas, and Spanish watermelons. They chased the Pronghorn antelope, collected hookworm larvae, and trapped mice to find the source of the meat. Food preparation includes steaming the plants in the hole and grilling the meat over an open fire.
San Xavier District is a major tourist attraction near Tucson, Mission San Xavier del Bac, the "White Dove of the Desert," founded in 1700 by Jesuit missionaries and explorers of Eusebio Kino. Both the first church building and currently built by Tohono O'odham. The second building was built also by the Franciscan priests during the period from 1783 to 1797. The oldest European building in Arizona today, it is considered a prime example of Spanish colonial design. This is one of the many missions built in the southwest by Spain on their then-northern border.
The beauty of mission often leads tourists to assume that desert people have embraced the Catholics of the Spanish conquerors. The village of Tohono O'odham rejects change for hundreds of years. During the 1660s and 1750s, two great rebellions were rivaled on a 1680 Pueblo Rebellion scale. Their armed resistance prevented the Spaniards from increasing their attacks on the land of the Alta Pimera. The Spaniards retreated to what they called PimerÃÆ'a Steel. As a result, the desert people preserve their traditions largely intact from generation to generation.
It was not until more Anglo-European descendants began to move into Arizona that outsiders began to oppress the traditional ways of society. Large farmers established the cotton industry, initially employing many of O'odham as agricultural workers. Under the US Federal policy of India from the late 19th century, the government required indigenous children to attend Indian boarding schools, where they were forced to use English, practice Christianity, and surrender much of their culture in an effort to promote assimilation into mainstream America.
The current tribal governance structure, established in the 1930s, reflects the years of commercial, missionary, and federal intervention. The goal is to get Indians into "real" Americans, but pesantren offer training only for domestic workers and low-level farming. "Assimilation" is the official policy, but full participation is not the goal. Boarding school students should function in separate United States societies as economic workers, not leaders.
The Tohono O'odham has retained many traditions into the twenty-first century, and still speaks their language. Since the end of the 20th century, however, American mass culture has penetrated and in some cases eroded the tradition of O'odham when their children adopted new trends in technology and other practices.
Health
Beginning in the 1960s, many members of the tribe abandoned the traditional plant-based diet and started eating foods high in fat and calories, with the results of type 2 diabetes becoming widespread among the tribe. Half to three quarters of all adults are diagnosed with this disease, and about one-third of adult tribes require routine medical care. The federal medical program has not provided a solution to these problems in the population. Some tribal members have returned to traditional food consumption and practiced traditional games to control the obesity that often leads to diabetes. Research by Gary Paul Nabhan and others suggests that traditional foods and more physical exercise better regulate blood sugar. A local nonprofit Community Action, Tohono O'Odham (TOCA), has developed a series of food system programs that contribute to public health, cultural revitalization, and economic development. It has started a cafe serving traditional food.
Cultural revitalization
Tohono O'odham's cultural resources are threatened - especially language - but stronger than many other aboriginal groups in the United States.
Every February the Nation holds the annual Rodeo and Parade Selling in its capital. Selling District rodeos has been an annual event since its inception in 1938. It celebrates traditional border skills of riding and managing livestock.
In the visual arts, Michael Chiago and the late Leonard Chana have gained wide recognition for their paintings and drawings from the activities and traditional scenes of O'odham. Chiago has been exhibited at the Heard Museum and has contributed cover art to the Arizona Highways magazine and the University of Arizona Press books. Chana illustrated books by author Byrd Baylor and created a mural for the Tohono O'odham Nation building.
In 2004, the Heard Museum gave Danny Lopez its first heritage award, admitting his lifelong work supports the desert people's way of life. At the National Museum for American Indians (NMAI), Tohono O'odham is represented in an exhibition of establishments and Lopez blesses the exhibition.
Tucson Indian School
The children of Tohono O'odham were asked to attend an Indian boarding school, designed to teach them English and assimilate them in major European-American ways. According to historian David Leighton, from the Arizona Daily Star newspaper, Tohono O'odham attended the Tucson Indian School. This pesantren was founded in 1886, when T.C. Kirkwood, supervisor of the Presbyterian Church House Mission Board, requested the Tucson General Council to land near the University of Arizona premises to be built. The General Council gives the House of Mission 99-year leasehold on land with $ 1 per year. The board bought 42 acres of land on the Santa Cruz River, from early Sam Hughes pioneer.
The new facility opened in 1888, with 54 boys and girls. In the new semi-religious boarding schools, boys learn rural trade such as carpentry and farming, while girls are taught sewing and similar domestic skills in that period. By 1890, supplementary buildings had been completed but schools were too small for demand, and students had to be rejected. To raise funds for the school and support its expansion, its supervisors sign a contract with the city of Tucson to assess and maintain roads.
In 1903, Jose Xavier Pablo, who later became a leader in Tohono O'odham Nation, graduated from school. Three years later, the school bought the land they rented from the city of Tucson and sold it as a significant advantage. In 1907, they bought land east of the Santa Cruz River, near the present Ajo Road and built a new school. The new boarding school was opened in 1908; has a separate post office, known as the Escuela Post Office. Sometimes this name is used in place of the Tucson Indian School.
In the mid-1930s, the Tucson Indian School covered 160 hectares, had 9 buildings and a capacity to educate 130 students. In 1940, about 18 different tribes formed a student population in school. By changing the idea of ​​tribal children's education, the federal government began to support education in which children live with their families. In 1960 the school closed its doors. The site was developed as Santa Cruz Plaza, just southwest of Pueblo Magnet High School.
Maps Tohono O'odham
Tohono O'odham Nation
The Tohono O'odham Nation in the United States occupies a reservation that incorporates some of the original Sonoran desert land of its people. It is organized into eleven districts. The land is located in three regions of the state of Arizona today: Pima, Pinal, and Maricopa. The reservation area is 11,534,012 square kilometers (4,453,307Ã, sqÃ, mi), India's third largest reservation area in the United States (after Navajo Nations and Indian Ouray Command and Reservation). The 2000 census reported 10,787 people living on the reservation land. The tribal registry office calculated a population of 25,000, with 20,000 people living on its Arizona reservation ground.
Government
This country is governed by tribal councils and chairmen, elected by eligible adult members of the country. According to their constitution, elections are conducted with a complex formula intended to ensure that the rights of the small community of O'odham are protected, as well as the interests of the larger community and family. The current chairman is Edward D. Manuel.
Lands
- The main reservation, Tohono O'odham Indian Reservation, located in central Pima, southwest Pinal, and southeastern Maricopa, and has a land area of ​​11,243,098 square kilometers (4,340,984 m²) and a 2000 population census of 8,376 person. The land area is 97.48 percent of the total order, and the population is 77.65 percent of the total reservation land.
- The San Xavier Reservation , in 32Ã, Â ° 03? 00? N 111Ã, Â ° 05? 02? W , located in Pima County, in the southwest part of the Tucson metropolitan area. It has a land area of ​​288,895 square kilometers (111,543 sq million) and a population of 2,053 people.
- The San Lucy District is composed of seven small adjacent ground plots in, and northwest, the town of Gila Bend in the southwest of Maricopa County. Their total land area is 1,915 square kilometers (473 hectares), with a total population of 304 people.
- Florence Village District is located southwest of Florence in central Pinal County. This is a plot of land with an area of ​​0.1045 square kilometers (25.8 hectares) and a population of 54 people.
Border issues
Most of the 25,000 Tohono O'odhams today live in southern Arizona. Several thousand from O'odham, many associated with kinship, also live in northern Sonora, Mexico. Unlike aboriginal groups along the US-Canada border, Tohono O'odham was not offered dual citizenship when the US withdrew its border across their lands in 1853 by Gadsden Purchase. However, for decades members of the nation move freely across international borders today - with the blessing of the US government - to work, participate in religious ceremonies, keep medical appointments in Sells, Arizona and visit relatives. Even today, many tribal members make an annual pilgrimage to Magdalena, Sonora, during St. Francis to commemorate St. Francis of Assisi, the founder of the Franciscan Order.
Since the mid-1980s, however, the United States has enforced strict borders that restrict this movement, due to illegal drug and illegal issues. Tribesmen born in Mexico or who do not have sufficient documentation to prove US birth or residence find themselves trapped in a remote corner of Mexico, with no access to a tribal center just tens of miles away. Since 2001, the bill has been repeatedly introduced in Congress to solve the problem of "one country-two countries" by granting US citizenship to all registered members of Tohono O'odham, but so far their sponsors have not gained a share. Opponents of granting US citizenship to all registered Nation members include concerns that many births in the reservation have been illegally recorded, and they are vulnerable to easy change or forgery.
Tribal governments incur additional costs due to the proximity of the US-Mexico border. There are also related social issues. Many of the thousands of Mexican citizens, and other citizens who illegally cross the US Border to work on US farms or smuggle drugs into the US, seek emergency relief from Tohono O'odham police when they are dehydrated or stranded. In the field, emergency rescue of border patrols and tribal EMT coordinate and communicate. Arizona tribes and states pay the bulk of the bills for law enforcement and border-related emergency services. Former Arizona governor Janet Napolitano and Tohono O'odham government leader have repeatedly requested that the federal government pay back the state and tribes for emergency border-related fees. Tribal Chairman Ned Norris Jr. has complained about the lack of replacement for border enforcement.
Citing its impact on wildlife and tribal members, Tohono leader O'odham has objected to President Donald J. Trump's plans to build a wall along the US-Mexico border. About 2,000 members live in Mexico, the walls will physically separate them from members in the United States.
Martin Luther King Jr's first visit to India reservation
On April 2, 2017, in the Arizona Daily Star newspaper, renowned historian David Leighton links what is believed to be Martin Luther King Jr.'s first visit to India's reservation, which is the Tohono Indian Reservation of O'odham.
On September 20, 1959, Martin Luther King Jr. flew to Tucson from Los Angeles to give a lecture at the Sunday Evening Forum. That night, he gave a speech called "A Great Time to Live," at the University of Arizona auditorium, now called Centennial Hall. After the forum, the reception was held for the King, where he was introduced to Reverend Casper Glenn, pastor of a multiracial church called the Southern Presbyterian Church. The king was very interested in this racial mixed church and made arrangements to visit him the next day.
The next morning, Glenn took King, on his Plymouth station train, and drove him to Southside Presbyterian Church. There, Glenn showed photographs of the King he took from a diverse congregation, most of whom were part of the Tohono O'odham tribe at the time. Glenn recalled that when he saw the pictures, "The king said he was never in Indian reservation, nor had he ever had the chance to get to know Indians." He was then asked to be pushed into a nearby reservation, as a temporary wish.
The two men travel with Ajo Way to Sell, which is then called Papago Indian Reservation, now Indian Tohono O'odham Reservation. When they arrived at the tribal council office, the tribal leaders were shocked to see the King and very honored he came to visit them. The king was eager to talk to them but was very careful with his question, because he did not want to show a lack of knowledge of their tribal heritage. "He's fascinated by everything they share with him," Glenn said.
The servants then went to the local Presbyterian church in Sells, which was recently built by its members, with funds provided by the Presbyterian national church. King had a chance to talk to Father Towsand who was happy to meet the King.
On the way back to Tucson, "The King expressed his appreciation for the chance to meet the Indians," Glenn recalls. The king left the city that day, around 4 pm, from the airport.
District
Leading Tohono O'odham
- Annie Antone, contemporary picture basket maker,
- Dew Johnson's controls, basketball baskets, and genuine health and supporters
- Augustine Lopez, chairman of the country Tohono O'odham
- Ponka-We Victors, Kansas state legislator
- Ofelia Zepeda, linguist, poet, author
See also
Footnote
Further reading
- Frances Manuel and Deborah Neff, Desert Indian Women. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press, 2001.
- Wesley Bliss, "In The Wake of the Wheel: The Introduction of Carts to Indian Papago from Southern Arizona," at E.H. Spicer (ed.), Human Problems in Technology Change. New York: Russell Sage Foundation Publications, 1952; pp.Ã, 23-33.
- Eloise David and Marcia Spark, "Arizona Folk Art Won the History of Papago Indians," The Clarion, Fall 1978.
- Jason H. Gart, Papago Park: A History of Hole-in-the-Rock from 1848 to 1995. Pueblo Grande Museum Occasional Papers no. 1, (1997).
- Andrae M. Marak and Laura Tuennerman, On the Imperial Border: The Tohono O'odham, Gender, and Assimilation, 1880-1934. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press, 2013.
- Allan J. McIntyre, The Tohono O'odham and Pimeria Alta. Arcadia Publishing, 2008.
- Deni J. Seymour, "Syndetic Approach for Identifying Historic Mission Sites San Cayetano Del TumacÃÆ'¡cori," International Journal of Historic Archeology, vol. 11, no. 3 (2007), pp.Ã, 269-296.
- Deni J. Seymour, "Delicate Diplomacy on Resistant Restier: 17th Century Sobaipuri Social and Economic Relations at Northwestern New Spain, Part I." New Mexico Historical Review, vol. 82, no. 4 (2007).
- Deni J. Seymour, "Delicate Diplomacy on Resistant Restier: 17th Century Sobaipuri Social and Economic Relations at Northwestern New Spain, Part II." New Mexico Historical Review, vol. 83, no. 2 (2008).
- David Leighton, "Street Smarts: Tucson Indian School teaches hoeing, sewing," Arizona Daily Star, February 10, 2015
- David Leighton, "Street Smarts: MLK Jr. raises his voice to the ceiling in Tucson," Arizona Daily Star, April 2, 2017
External links
- Tohono Tanggo O'odham Official Website
- Tohono O'odham/ITCA (Intergovernmental Arizona Council)
- Community Action of Tohono O'odham (TOCA)
- TOCA Desert Rain Cafe
- How to Talk Tohono O'odham - Video
- Tohono O'odham utility
- O'odham Solidarity Project
- Bibliography of Tohono O'odham Online
- Tohono O'odham, Papago di Sonora, Mexico
- David Leighton, "Street Smarts: Tucson Indian School teaches hoeing, sewing," Arizona Daily Star, February 10, 2015
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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