Myanmar ( Burma: Ã, [mj? mÃÆ'] ), officially The United Republic of Myanmar and also known as Burma , is a sovereign country in Southeast Asia. Myanmar is bordered by India and Bangladesh to the west, Thailand and Laos to the east and China to the north and northeast. In the south, about one-third of the total of Myanmar's 5,876 km (3,651 mi) rim forms an unbroken coastline along 1,930 km (1,200 miles) along the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. The 2014 census in the country calculates the population to 51 million people. By 2017, the population is about 54 million. Myanmar has an area of ​​676,578 square kilometers (261,228 square miles). The capital is Naypyidaw, and its largest city and capital is Yangon (Rangoon). Myanmar has been a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) since 1997.
The earliest civilizations in Myanmar included the Pyu city-states that spoke at Tibeto-Burman in Upper Burma and Mon kingdom in Lower Burma. In the 9th century, the people of Bamar entered the upper Irrawaddy valley and, after the establishment of the Pagan Kingdom in the 1050s, the Burmese language, Theravada culture and Buddhism gradually became dominant in the country. The Pagan kingdom fell because of the Mongol invasion and some warring countries emerged. In the 16th century, reunited by the Taungoo dynasty, the country for a brief period was the largest empire in the history of Mainland Southeast Asia. At the beginning of the 19th century, the Konbaung dynasty controlled territories that included modern Myanmar and Manipur and Assam were briefly controlled. Britain took over the administration of Myanmar after three Anglo-Burmese Wars in the 19th century and the country became a British colony. Myanmar was granted independence in 1948, as a democratic country. After the coup in 1962, it became a military dictatorship under the Burma Socialist Program Party.
For much of his independent years, the country has been drowned in rampant ethnic strife and its various ethnic groups have been involved in one of the longest-running civil wars in the world. During this time, the UN and several other organizations have reported consistent and systematic human rights abuses in the country. In 2011, the military junta was formally dissolved after the 2010 elections, and civilian civilian government was installed. This, along with the release of Aung San Suu Kyi and political prisoners, has increased the country's human rights record and foreign relations, and has led to easing of trade and other economic sanctions. However, there is continuing criticism of the government's treatment of ethnic minorities, its response to ethnic rebellion, and religious disputes. In a 2015 landmark vote, Aung San Suu Kyi's party won a majority in both assemblies. However, the Burmese military remains a powerful force in politics.
Myanmar is a country rich in jade and gems, oil, natural gas, and other mineral resources. In 2013, GDP (nominal) reached US $ 56.7 billion and GDP (PPP) of US $ 221.5 billion. The income gap in Myanmar is one of the largest in the world, as most of the economy is controlled by supporters of the former military government. In 2016, Myanmar ranked 145 out of 188 countries in human development, according to the Human Development Index.
Video Myanmar
Etimologi
Both Burmese and Burmese names are from earlier Burmese Mranma , an ethnonym for the Bamar majority ethnic group, an uncertain etymology. These terms are also popularly derived from "Brahma Desha" after Brahma.
In 1989, the military government officially changed the English translation of many names that date back to the colonial period of Burma or earlier, including from the country itself: "Burma" to "Myanmar". Renaming remains a contentious issue. Many groups and countries of political and ethnic opposition continue to use "Burma" because they do not recognize the legitimacy of the ruling military government or its authority to change the name of the state.
In April 2016, soon after taking office, Aung San Suu Kyi clarified that foreigners are free to use good names, "because there is nothing in our country's constitution that says you should use any term specifically".
The official full name of the country is the "Republic of the Union of Myanmar" ( ???????????????????????????????????? , Pyidaunzu Thanm? da My? ma Nainngandaw , pronounced [pjÃÆ'¬ dÃÆ'? ? z ?? ÃÆ'? m? da? mj? mÃÆ' nÃÆ' ??? ÃÆ'? d ??] ). Countries that do not formally admit the name use the long form of the "Union of Burma" instead.
In English, this country is known as "Burma" or "Myanmar" ( listen ) . Both of these names are derived from the name of the Burmese majority ethnic group. Myanmar is considered a literary form of group name, while Burma is derived from "Bamar", the everyday form of group name. Depending on the register used, the pronunciation is Bama ( pronounced [b? MÃÆ'] ) or myama ( pronounced [mj? mÃÆ'] ). The name Burma has been used in English since the 18th century.
Burma continues to be used in English by governments in many countries, such as Canada and the UK. The official policy of the United States maintains Burma as the country's name, although the State Department's website lists the country as "Burma (Myanmar)" and Barack Obama has referred to the country with both names. The Czech Republic formally uses Myanmar, although its Foreign Ministry mentions Myanmar and Burma on its website. The United Nations uses Myanmar , as do the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, Australia, Russia, Germany, China, India, Bangladesh, Norway, Japan and Switzerland.
Most of the English-language international news media refer to countries with the name Myanmar , including BBC, CNN, Al Jazeera, Reuters, RT (Russia Today) and Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC)/Radio Australia.
Myanmar is known by the name of Burmese as opposed to Myanmar in Spanish, Italian, Romanian and Greek - Birmania being a localized version of Burma > Burmese in Spanish, for example. Myanmar was formerly known as "BirmÃÆ'nà ¢ nia" in Portuguese, and as "Birmanie" in French. As in the past, French-language media today consistently use Birmanie .
Maps Myanmar
History
Prehistoric
Archaeological evidence suggests that Homo erectus lives in what is now known as Myanmar as early as 750,000 years ago, with no more erectus found after 75,000 years ago. The first evidence Homo sapiens is about 25,000 BP with the discovery of stone tools in central Myanmar. Evidence of domestication of plant and animal neolithic age and the use of polished stone tools dating between about 10,000 and 6,000 BC have been found in the form of cave paintings in Padah-Lin Caves.
The Bronze Age arrived sometime around 1500 BC when people in the region turned copper into bronze, planted rice and cultivated poultry and pigs; they are among the first people in the world to do so. Human remains and artifacts from this era are found in the Monywa District in the Sagaing Division. The Iron Age began around 500 BC with the advent of iron-working settlements in the present-day southern region of Mandalay. The evidence also indicates the presence of rice-growing settlements from large villages and small towns traded with their environment as far back as China between 500 BC and 200 AD. The Iron Age of Burmese Culture also has influences from outside sources such as India and Thailand, as seen in their burial practices of child burials. This shows some form of inter-group communication in Myanmar and elsewhere, perhaps through trade.
Initial city-state
Around the second century BC, the first known city-state emerged in central Burma. These city states were founded as part of a migration to the south by Pyu people speaking at Tibeto-Burman, Myanmar's earliest inhabitants whose records still exist, from now on Yunnan. The Pyu culture is heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism and other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which will have lasting influence on Burmese culture and political organization later on.
In the 9th century, some city-states had grown all over the country: Pyu in the central dry zone, Mon along the southern coastline and Arakan along the west coast. The balance was disrupted when Pyu came under repeated attacks from Nanzhao between 750 and 830s. In the mid-9th century, the Bamarites established small settlements in Bagan. It was one of the few city states that competed until the end of the 10th century when it grew in authority and majesty.
Burmese Imperial
Pagans gradually grew to absorb the surrounding states until the 1050s 1060s when Anawrahta established the Pagan Kingdom, the first unification of the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Pagan Empire and the Khmer Empire were the two main forces in mainland Southeast Asia. The language and culture of Burma gradually became dominant in the upper Irrawaddy valley, surpassing the norms of Pyu, Mon, and Pali at the end of the 12th century.
The Theravada Buddhist teachings slowly began to spread to the village level, though Tantrics, Mahayana, Hindus, and the people's religion remained strong. Pagan authorities and wealthy build more than 10,000 Buddhist temples in the Pagan capital zone alone. The recurrent Mongol Invasion (1277-1301) overthrew the four-century kingdom in 1287.
Pagan collapse followed by 250 years of political fragmentation that went well into the 16th century. Like Burman four centuries earlier, Shan migrants who came with the Mongol invasion stayed behind. Some of the competing Shan states began dominating the entire northwest to east that encircled the Irrawaddy valley. The valley was also hit by small states until the end of the 14th century when two considerable powers, the Kingdom of Ava and the Hanthawaddy Kingdom, emerged. In the west, the politically fragmented Arakan was under the competitive influence of its more powerful neighbors until the Mrauk U Kingdom united the Arakan coastline for the first time in 1437.
From the beginning, Ava fought against unification (1385-1424) but could never recover the lost empire. After detaining Ava, Hanthawaddy enters his golden age, and Arakan then becomes a force within himself for the next 350 years. Conversely, constant warfare made Ava very weak, and gradually destroyed since 1481 and beyond. In 1527, the Confederate States of Shan conquered Ava himself, and ruled Up Myanmar until 1555.
Like the Gentile countries, Ava, Hanthawaddy, and Shan are all multi-ethnic countries. Despite the war, cultural synchronization continues. This period is considered the golden age for Burmese culture. The Burmese literature "grows more confident, popular, and diverse", and the second generation of Burmese legal codes and the earliest pan-Burma chronicles appear. The kings of Hanthawaddy introduced religious reforms which then spread throughout the country. Many beautiful Mrauk U temples were built during this period.
Taungoo and colonialism
Political unification came back in the mid-16th century, due to Taungoo's efforts, Ava's former subordinate state. The ambitious young King Taungoo, Tabinshwehti, defeated the stronger Hanthawaddy in the Toungoo-Hanthawaddy War (1534-41). His successor Bayinnaung went on to conquer the vast plains of mainland Southeast Asia including Shan states, Lan Na, Manipur, Mong Mao, Ayutthaya Kingdom, Lan Xang and Southern Arakan. However, the greatest empire in Southeast Asia's history decomposes soon after Bayinnaung's death in 1581, completely collapsed in 1599. Ayutthaya captured Tenasserim and Lan Na, and Portuguese mercenaries established Portuguese rule in Thanlyin (Syriam).
The dynasty rejoined and defeated the Portuguese in 1613 and Siam in 1614. The kingdom restored smaller and more manageable kingdoms, including Lower Myanmar, Upper Myanmar, Shan states, Lan Na and Tenasserim. The Restored Toungoo King creates a legal and political framework whose basic features will continue through the 19th century. The Crown actually replaces the hereditary tribal chief with the governor appointed throughout the Irrawaddy valley, and greatly diminishes the right of Shan's descendants. Its trade and secular administrative reform build a prosperous economy for more than 80 years. From the 1720s, the kingdom was beset by Meithei's repetition to Upper Myanmar and a troubling rebellion at Lan Na. In 1740, Mon of Lower Myanmar established the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom. Hanthawaddy forces fired Ava in 1752, ending the 266-year-old Toungoo dynasty.
After the fall of Ava, the Konbaung-Hanthawaddy War involves an insurgent group under Alaungpaya defeating the Restored Hanthawaddy, and in 1759, he reunited all of Myanmar and Manipur, and expelled France and Britain, who had given weapons to Hanthawaddy.. In 1770, Alaungpaya's heirs conquered many Laos (1765) and fought and won the Burmese-Siam War (1765-67) against Ayutthaya and the Burmese-Chinese War (1765-69) against Qing China (1765-1769).
With Burma preoccupied by Chinese threats, Ayutthaya restored its territory in 1770, and went to capture Lan Na in 1776. Burma and Siam went to war until 1855, but all resulted in a dead end, swapped Tenasserim (to Burma) and Lan Na (to Ayutthaya ). Faced with a powerful Chinese and revived Ayutthaya in the east, King Bodawpaya turned west, gaining Arakan (1785), Manipur (1814) and Assam (1817). It is the second largest empire in Burmese history but also one with an obscure long border with British India.
The extent of this kingdom is short-lived. Burma lost Arakan, Manipur, Assam and Tenasserim to Britain in the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-1826). In 1852, the British easily controlled the Lower Burma in the Second Anglo-Burmese War. King Mindon Min attempted to modernize the kingdom, and in 1875 narrowly avoided annexation by surrendering the Karenni States. Britain, worried about the consolidation of French Indochina, annexed the rest of the country in the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885.
The kings of Konbaung extended the restored Toungoo administration reform, and achieved unprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion. For the first time in history, Burmese language and culture dominated the entire Irrawaddy valley. The evolution and growth of Burmese literature and theater continues, aided by a very high level of adult literacy for the era (half of all men and 5% of women). Nevertheless, the rate and pace of reform were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the advance of British colonialism.
Burmese English (1824-1948)
Burma in British India
The 18th century saw Burmese rulers, whose previous country was of little interest to European merchants, sought to maintain their traditional influence in the western regions of Assam, Manipur and Arakan. However, suppressing them was the British East India Company, expanding its interests eastward in the same region. Over the next sixty years, diplomacy, raids, covenants, and compromises continued until, after three Anglo-Burmese War (1824-1885), the British proclaimed control over much of Burma. The British government brings about social, economic, cultural and administrative change.
With the fall of Mandalay, all Burmese came under British rule, annexed on 1 January 1886. During the colonial era, many Indians came as soldiers, civil servants, construction workers and merchants and, together with the Anglo-Burmese community, dominated commercial and civil life in Burma. Rangoon became the capital of Burmese Britain and an important port between Calcutta and Singapore.
The Burmese hatred was strong and released in the violent unrest that paralyzed Yangon (Rangoon) on the occasion until the 1930s. Some of the discontent is caused by disrespecting the culture and traditions of Burma such as British refusal to remove shoes when they enter the pagoda. The Buddhist monk became the vanguard of the independence movement. U Wisara, an activist monk, died in prison after a 166-day hunger strike to protest the rules prohibiting him from wearing Buddhist robes while in prison.
British Burmese Separation from British India
On April 1, 1937, Burma became a separately managed colony of Great Britain and Ba. The first prime minister and Prime Minister of Burma. Ba Maw was a vocal advocate to govern himself in Burma and he opposed the participation of Great Britain, and with the extension of Burma, in World War II. He resigned from the Legislative Assembly and was arrested for incitement. In 1940, before Japan officially entered the Second World War, Aung San formed the Burmese Army of Independence in Japan.
A major battlefield, Burma was destroyed during World War II. In March 1942, within a few months after they entered the war, Japanese troops had advanced in Rangoon and the British government had collapsed. The Burma Executive Government led by Ba Maw was founded by Japan in August 1942. Chindit Wingate England was formed into a long-distance penetration group trained to operate far behind the Japanese line. Similar American units, Merunt's Marauders, followed Chindits into the Burma forest in 1943. Beginning in late 1944, the allied forces launched a series of attacks that led to the end of Japanese rule in July 1945. Intense battles with most of Burma were destroyed by battle. Overall, Japan lost about 150,000 people in Burma. Only 1,700 prisoners were taken.
Although many Burmese fought initially for Japan as part of the Burmese Freedom Forces, many Burmese, mostly from ethnic minorities, are served in the British Burmese Army. The Burmese National Army and Arakan National Army fought with Japan from 1942 to 1944 but renewed allegiance to the Allies in 1945. Under the Japanese occupation, 170,000 to 250,000 civilians were killed.
After World War II, Aung San negotiated the Panglong Agreement with ethnic leaders who guaranteed Myanmar's independence as a united state. Aung Zan Wai, Pe Khin, Bo Hmu Aung, Sir Maung Gyi, Sein Mya Maung Myoma U Than Kywe was one of the negotiators of the historical Panglong Conference negotiated with the leader of Bamar General Aung San and other ethnic leaders in 1947. In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Myanmar, the transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals killed Aung San and several cabinet members.
Independence (1948-1962)
On January 4, 1948, the country became an independent republic, named Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as first President and U Nu as its first Prime Minister. Unlike most former British colonies and other territories overseas, Burma does not become a member of the Commonwealth. A bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of the Chamber of Deputies and Chamber of Nationalities, and multi-party elections were held in 1951-1952, 1956 and 1960.
The current geographical region of Burma can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which incorporates Proper Burma, which consists of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Border Area, which has been managed separately by the British.
In 1961, U Thant, then the Permanent Representative of the Burmese Association for the United Nations and former Prime Minister's Prime Minister, was elected the Secretary-General of the United Nations, a position he held for ten years. Among the Burmese who worked at the United Nations when he became Secretary General was a young Aung San Suu Kyi (daughter of Aung San), who later became the Nobel Peace Prize winner in 1991.
When non-Burman ethnic groups encouraged autonomy or federalism, in addition to having a weak civilian government at the center, the military leadership launched a coup in 1962. Despite being incorporated in the 1947 Constitution, the military government consecutively interpreted its use. the term 'federalism' as anti-national, anti-unity and pro-disintegration.
Military_rule_.281962.E2.80.932011.29 "> Military rule (1962-2011)
On March 2, 1962, the military led by General Ne Win controlled Burma through a coup, and the government has been under direct or indirect control by the military since then. Between 1962 and 1974, Myanmar was ruled by a revolutionary council led by the general. Almost all aspects of society (business, media, production) were nationalized or brought under government control under Burma Road to Socialism, which combined the Soviet-style nationalization and central planning.
A new constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma was adopted in 1974. Until 1988, the state was ruled as a one-party system, with the General and other military officials resigning and taking power through the Socialist Socialist Program Party (BSPP). During this period, Myanmar became one of the poorest countries in the world.
There have been sporadic protests against military rule during Ne Win's years and this is almost always hard pressed. On July 7, 1962, the government broke up a demonstration at Rangoon University, killing 15 students. In 1974, the military vehemently suppressed anti-government protests at U Thant's cemetery. Student protests in 1975, 1976, and 1977 were quickly suppressed by tremendous powers.
In 1988, the riots of economic mischief and political oppression by the government led to pro-democracy protests extending across the country known as the 8888 Rebellion. The security forces killed thousands of demonstrators, and General Saw Maung launched a coup and formed the State Rehabilitation and Rehabilitation Council SLORC). In 1989, SLORC announced a military emergency after widespread protests. The military government completed a plan for the People's Assembly election on May 31, 1989. SLORC changed the official English name of the "Socialist Republic of the Burmese Society" to the "Union of Myanmar" in 1989.
In May 1990, the government held free elections for the first time in almost 30 years and the National League for Democracy (NLD), party Aung San Suu Kyi, won 392 out of a total of 492 seats (ie, 80% of seats). However, the military junta refused to give up power and continued to rule the country as SLORC until 1997, and then as the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) until its dissolution in March 2011.
On June 23, 1997, Myanmar was accepted at the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). On March 27, 2006, the military junta, which had moved the national capital from Yangon to a site near Pyinmana in November 2005, officially named the new capital of Naypyidaw, meaning "the city of kings".
In August 2007, an increase in diesel and gasoline prices led to a Saffron Revolution led by a Buddhist monk dealt heavily by the government. The government cracked down on them on September 26, 2007. The crackdown was harsh, with barricade reports at the Shwedagon Pagoda and the monks dead. There were also rumors of disputes within the Burmese army, but nothing was confirmed. Military action against unarmed protesters was widely criticized as part of an international reaction to the Saffron Revolution and led to increased economic sanctions against the Burmese Government.
In May 2008, Typhoon Nargis caused massive damage to the densely populated paddy farms in the Irrawaddy Division. It was the worst natural disaster in Burmese history with reports of some 200,000 dead or missing, damages of up to 10 billion dollars, and as many as 1 million people homeless. In the critical days following this disaster, the government of Burmese isolationists was accused of blocking the United Nations recovery effort. Humanitarian aid was requested but concerns about foreign military or intelligence presence in the country delayed the entry of US military planes delivering drugs, food and other supplies.
In early August 2009, a conflict known as the Kokang incident broke out in Shan State in northern Myanmar. For several weeks, junta forces fought against ethnic minorities including Han Chinese, Wa, and Kachin. During August 8-12, the first days of the conflict, as many as 10,000 Myanmar civilians fled to Yunnan province in neighboring China.
Civil war
The civil war has been a constant feature of Myanmar's socio-political landscape since the achievement of independence in 1948. These wars have largely fought for ethnic and sub-national autonomy, with territories surrounding the central districts of the country's Bamar tribe that function as a conflict geographic setting. Foreign journalists and visitors need special travel permits to visit areas where Myanmar's civil war continues.
In October 2012, ongoing conflict in Myanmar included the Kachin conflict, between the Pro-Christian Kachin Pro-Independence Army and the government; civil war between Rohingya Muslims, and government and non-governmental groups in Rakhine State; and conflict between Shan minorities, Lahu, and Karen, and governments in the east of the country. In addition, al-Qaeda hinted at intentions to become involved in Myanmar. In a video released on September 3, 2014, primarily aimed at India, militant group leader Ayman al-Zawahiri said al-Qaeda did not forget the Muslim Burmese and that the group did "what they can do to save you". In response, the military increased its alert level, while the Burmese Muslim Association issued a statement saying Muslims would not tolerate any threat to their homeland.
The armed conflict between Chinese ethnic rebels and the Armed Forces of Myanmar has led to the Kokang attack in February 2015. The conflict has forced 40,000 to 50,000 civilians to flee their homes and seek refuge on the Chinese side of the border. During the incident, the Chinese government was accused of providing military assistance to Chinese ethnic rebels. Burmese officials have historically been "manipulated" and suppressed by the Chinese government throughout Burma's modern history to create closer and binding ties with China, creating a satellite state of China in Southeast Asia. However, there is uncertainty as clashes between Burmese troops and local rebel groups continue.
Democratic reform
The goal of the 2008 Burmese constitutional referendum, held on May 10, 2008, is the creation of a "thriving-discipline democracy". As part of the referendum process, the country's name was changed from "Union of Myanmar" to "Republic of Myanmar Unity", and elections were held under the new constitution in 2010. The 2010 election observer report describes the event as largely peaceful; However, allegations of ballot irregularities are on the rise, and the United Nations (UN) and a number of Western countries condemn the election as a fraud.
The military-backed Solidarity and Development Party of the Union declared victory in the 2010 elections, stating that it has been favored by 80 percent of the vote; However, the claim was disputed by many pro-democracy opposition groups which assert that the military regime has engaged in rampant fraud. One report documented 77 percent as the official voter turnout rate. The military junta was dissolved on March 30, 2011.
Opinions differ whether the transition to liberal democracy is ongoing. According to some reports, the military presence continues as the label of "democratic discipline" suggests. This label asserts that the Burmese military permits certain civil liberties while secretly instituting itself further into Burmese politics. Such statements assume that reform only occurs when the military is able to protect its own interests through transition - here, "transition" does not refer to a transition to liberal democracy, but transitions to quasi-military rule.
Since the 2010 elections, the government has embarked on a series of reforms to steer the country toward liberal democracy, mixed economy, and reconciliation, although doubts remain about the motives that support the reforms. A series of reforms including the release of pro-democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi from house arrest, the establishment of the National Commission on Human Rights, granting general amnesty to over 200 political prisoners, new labor laws allowing unions and strikes, relaxation of press censorship, and currency practice settings.
The impact of post-election reform has been observed in various fields, including ASEAN's approval of Myanmar's bid for ASEAN seat positions in 2014; a visit by US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton in December 2011 to encourage further progress, which was the first visit by the Secretary of State in over fifty years, during which Clinton met the Burmese president and former army commander Thein Sein, as well as the opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi; and the participation of Aung San Suu Kyi's National League for Democracy (NLD) party in 2012 elections, facilitated by the abolition of government laws that previously banned the NLD. As of July 2013, around 100 political prisoners remained imprisoned, while the conflict between the Burmese Army and local insurgent groups continued.
In the 1 April 2012 election, the NLD won 43 of the 45 available seats; previously was an illegal organization, the NLD has not won a single seat under the new constitution. The 2012 elections are also the first time that international representatives are allowed to monitor the voting process in Myanmar.
2015 elections
The general election was held on November 8, 2015. It was an election publicly contested in Myanmar since 1990. The result gave the absolute majority National League for Democracy seats in both chambers of the national parliament, enough to ensure that its candidate would be president, while NLD leader Aung San Suu Kyi is constitutionally prohibited from entering the presidency.
The new Parliament convened on February 1, 2016 and, on March 15, 2016, Htin Kyaw was elected the first non-military president since the 1962 military coup. On April 6, 2016, Aung San Suu Kyi took on a new role as State Advisor, a role similar to Prime Minister.
Geography
Myanmar has a total area of ​​678,500 square kilometers (262,000 sqÃ, mi). It lies between the latitudes of 9 Â ° and 29 Â ° N, and the longitude of 92 Â ° and 102 Â ° E. In February 2011, Myanmar comprised 14 states and territories, 67 districts, 330 municipalities, 64 sub-districts, 377 city, 2,914 wards, 14,220 villages and 68,290 villages.
Myanmar is bordered northwest by the Chittagong Division in Bangladesh and the states of Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh in India. The northern and northeastern borders are with the Tibet Autonomous Region and the Yunnan province for a total Sino-Myanmar border of 2,185 km (1,355 mi). It is bordered by Laos and Thailand to the southeast. Myanmar has 1,930 km (1,200 mi) of the coastline adjacent along the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea in the southwest and south, which forms a quarter of its total circumference.
To the north, the Hengduan Mountains form a border with China. Hkakabo Razi, located in Kachin State, at an altitude of 5,881 meters (19,295 ft), is the highest point in Myanmar. Many mountains, such as Rakhine Yoma, Bago Yoma, Bukit Shan, and Tenasserim Hills are in Myanmar, all flowing from north to south of the Himalayas.
The mountain chain divides the three systems of the Myanmar river, the Irawadi River, Salween (Thanlwin), and the Sittaung river. Irrawaddy River, Myanmar's longest river, nearly 2,170 kilometers (1,348 miles) long, flows into the Gulf of Martaban. The fertile plains are in the valley between the mountain chains. The majority of Myanmar's population lives in the Irrawaddy valley, which lies between Rakhine Yoma and Shan Highlands.
Administrative division
Myanmar is divided into seven states ( ??????? ) and seven regions ( ???????????? ), previously called a division. Areas dominated by Bamar (ie, mainly populated by dominant ethnic groups). The state is, in essence, an area that is home to a particular ethnic minority. The administrative divisions were subdivided into districts, which were subdivided into towns, villages, and villages.
Below are the number of districts, towns, small towns, neighborhoods, village and village groups in every division and state of Myanmar on December 31, 2001:
Climate
Most countries are located between Tropic of Cancer and Equator. It lies in the monsoon region of Asia, with its coastal areas receiving more than 5,000 mm (196.9 in) rain every year. The annual rainfall in the delta region is about 2,500 mm (98.4 inches), while the average annual rainfall in the Dry Zone of central Myanmar is less than 1,000 mm (39.4 inches). The northern region of Myanmar is the coolest, with an average temperature of 21 Â ° C (70 Â ° F). The coastal and delta regions have an average maximum temperature of 32 Â ° C (89.6 Â ° F).
Environment
Myanmar continues to perform poorly in the global Environmental Performance Index (EPI) with an overall rating of 153 out of 180 countries by 2016; among the worst in South Asia, just ahead of Bangladesh and Afghanistan. EPI was established in 2001 by the World Economic Forum as a global gauge to measure how well each country performs in implementing the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. The environmental regions in which Myanmar performs the worst (ie the highest) are air quality (174), health impacts of environmental problems (143) and biodiversity and habitat (142). Myanmar does the best (ie the lowest rating) in the environmental impacts of fisheries (21), but with declining fish stocks. Despite some problems, Myanmar also ranks 64 and scores very well (eg, 93.73% high percentage) in the environmental effects of the agricultural industry due to excellent nitrogen cycle management.
Wildlife
Myanmar's slow economic growth has contributed to the preservation of many of its environments and ecosystems. Forests, including bushy tropical growth and valuable teak trees in lower Myanmar, cover more than 49% of the country's territory, including acacia, bamboo, ironwood and magnolia champaca. Coconut and betel and rubber coconut have been introduced. On the plateau in the north, oak, pine and various rhododendrons cover most of the land.
Heavy logging since the newly enacted 1995 forestry legislation has seriously reduced the area of ​​forest and wildlife habitat. The land along the coast supports all varieties of tropical fruits and used to have large areas of mangrove forests although many protected mangrove forests have disappeared. In many central Myanmar (Dry Zones), vegetation is sparse and dwarfed.
Typical forest animals, especially tigers, are rare in Myanmar. In upper Myanmar, there are rhinoceros, wild buffalo, leopard, wild tiger, deer, antelope, and elephant, which are also domesticated or raised in captivity for use as working animals, especially in the wood industry. Smaller mammals are also numerous, ranging from gibbons and monkeys to flying foxes. Birds abundance can be found with over 800 species, including parrots, myna, peacock, red jungle birds, weaverbirds birds, crows, herons, and owls. Among the reptile species are crocodiles, geckos, cobras, Burmese pythons, and turtles. Hundreds of freshwater fish species are very diverse, abundant and a very important source of food. For a list of protected areas, see List of protected areas in Myanmar.
Government and politics
The Myanmar Constitution, the third since independence, was drafted by its military rulers and published in September 2008. The country is governed as a parliamentary system with a bicameral legislature (with a responsible executive president to the legislature), with 25% of legislators appointed by the military and the rest elected in the general election.
The legislature, called Pyidaungsu Hluttaw, is a bicameral and consists of two homes: 224 seats over Amyotha Hluttaw's house (House of Nationalities) and 440 lower-seat Pyithu Hluttaw (DPR) houses. The upper house consists of 224 members, of whom 168 are directly elected and 56 are appointed by the Burmese Armed Forces. The lower house consists of 440 members, of whom 330 are elected directly and 110 are appointed by the armed forces.
Political culture
The main political parties are the National League for Democratic Party and Solidarity and Development.
The constitution drafted by the Myanmar military was approved in a referendum in May 2008. As a result, 92.4% of 22 million voters with 99% official voters are considered suspects by many international observers and by the National Democratic League with widespread reports. fraud, ballot popping, and voter intimidation.
The 2010 elections resulted in victory for the military-backed Solidarity and Development Party. Foreign observers questioned electoral justice. One criticism of the election is that only government approved political parties are allowed to participate and the popular National Democratic League is declared illegal. However, soon after the election, the government ended house arrest from democracy advocate and National League for Democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi, and her ability to move freely across the country was seen as an important test of the military movement against more openness. Following unexpected reforms in 2011, senior NLD leaders have decided to register as political parties and to nominate candidates for the upcoming election.
Myanmar's recent political history is underscored by its struggle to build democratic structures amidst conflicting factions. This political transition from a military government held firmly to a free democratic system is widely believed to determine the future of Myanmar. Aung San Suu Kyi's glorious National League for Democracy victory in the 2015 general election has raised hopes of reaching the successful peak of this transition.
Myanmar judges as a corrupt country on the Corruption Perceptions Index with 136th ranking from 176 countries around the world, with the least corrupt ranking first, by 2016.
Foreign relations
Although the country's foreign relations, especially with Western nations, have been tense, relations have melted since the reforms following the 2010 elections. After years of diplomatic isolation and economic and military sanctions, the United States curbed foreign aid to Myanmar in November 2011 and announced the resumption of diplomatic relations on January 13, 2012 The EU has imposed sanctions on Myanmar, including arms embargoes, cessation of trade preferences, and suspension of all assistance with the exception of humanitarian aid.
Sanctions imposed by the United States and European countries against former military governments, coupled with boycotts and other direct pressure on companies by supporters of the democratic movement, have resulted in withdrawals from most US and many European companies. On April 13, 2012 British Prime Minister David Cameron called for economic sanctions against Myanmar to be postponed after the pro-democracy party secured 43 seats from a possible 45 in elections in 2012 with party leader Aung San Suu Kyi becoming Burmese parliamentarian.
Regardless of Western isolation, Asian firms in general still want to continue investing in the country and to start new investments, especially in the extraction of natural resources. The country has close ties with neighboring India and China with several Indian and Chinese companies operating in the country. Under Look East India's policy of cooperation between India and Myanmar including remote sensing, oil and gas exploration, information technology, hydropower and port and building development.
In 2008, India suspended military aid to Myanmar over the issue of human rights abuses by the ruling junta, despite maintaining extensive commercial ties, which provided the regime with much-needed revenue. The disbursement in relations began on 28 November 2011, when Belarusian Prime Minister Mikhail Myasnikovich and his wife Ludmila arrived in the capital, Naypyidaw, on the same day the country received a visit by US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, who also met democracy opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi. The international relations progress indicator continued in September 2012 when Aung San Suu Kyi visited the United States followed by the visit of Myanmar's reformist president to the United Nations.
In May 2013, Thein Sein became the first Burmese president to visit the White House in 47 years; Burma's last leader to visit the White House was Ne Win in September 1966. President Barack Obama praised the former general for political and economic reform, and the cessation of tensions between Myanmar and the United States. The political activists objected to the visit because of concerns over human rights abuses in Myanmar but Obama assured Thein Sein that Myanmar will receive US support. The two leaders discussed to free more political prisoners, institutionalize political reform and rule of law, and end ethnic conflicts in Myanmar - both governments agreed to sign bilateral trade and investment frameworks on 21 May 2013.
In June 2013, Myanmar held its first World Economic Forum on East Asia 2013. A regional spin-off from the annual World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, the summit was held on 5-7 June and was attended by 1,200 participants, including 10 heads of state, 12 ministers and 40 senior directors from around the world.
Military
Myanmar has received extensive military assistance from China in the past. Myanmar has been an ASEAN member since 1997. Despite succumbing to the ASEAN seat and hosting the ASEAN summit in 2006, he led the forum and hosted the summit in 2014. In November 2008, Myanmar's political situation with neighboring Bangladesh became strained as they start searching for natural gas in the disputed Gulf of Bengal block. The controversy surrounding the Rohingya population is also still a problem between Bangladesh and Myanmar.
The armed forces of Myanmar are known as Tatmadaw, which amounts to 488,000. Tatmadaw consists of Army, Navy, and Air Force. The country is ranked twelfth in the world because of the number of active forces in service. The military is very influential in Myanmar, with all the cabinet and ministerial positions usually held by military officials. Official figures for military spending are not available. The estimates vary greatly because of an uncertain exchange rate, but the costs of Myanmar's military forces are very high. Myanmar imports most of its weapons from Russia, Ukraine, China and India.
Myanmar is building a nuclear research reactor near Pyin Oo Lwin with help from Russia. This is one of the signatories of the nuclear non-proliferation pact since 1992 and a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) since 1957. The military junta told the IAEA in September 2000 about its intention to build a reactor. The research reactor builder framework is built by Yangon/Rangoon's limited ELE steel industry and water from anisakhan/BE falling water will be used for the reactor cavity coolant system.
In 2010 as part of the Wikileaks leaked cable, Myanmar is suspected of using a North Korean construction team to build an enriched Surface-to-Air Missile facility.
Until 2005, the United Nations General Assembly annually adopted a detailed resolution of the situation in Myanmar through consensus. But in 2006, a divided UN General Assembly voted through a resolution that strongly called on the Burmese government to end systematic violations of human rights. In January 2007, Russia and China vetoed a draft resolution before the UN Security Council called on the Myanmar government to respect human rights and embark on a democratic transition. South Africa also voted against the resolution.
Human rights and internal conflict
There is a consensus that the former military regime in Myanmar (1962-2010) is one of the most repressive and violent regimes in the world. In November 2012, Samantha Power, Barack Obama's Special Assistant to the President on Human Rights, wrote on the White House blog before the president's visit that "serious human rights violations against civilians in some areas continue, including against women and children." Members of the United Nations and major international human rights organizations have issued repeated and consistent reports of widespread and systematic human rights abuses in Myanmar. The General Assembly of the United Nations has repeatedly requested the Burmese Military Junta to respect human rights and in November 2009 the General Assembly adopted a resolution "strongly condemns the ongoing systematic violation of human rights and fundamental freedoms" and called for Burma's Military Regime "to take urgent steps to end violations of international human rights and humanitarian law."
International human rights organizations including Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International and the American Association for Advancement of Science have repeatedly documented and condemned widespread human rights abuses in Myanmar. The Freedom in the World 2011 report by Freedom House notes, "The military junta has... suppressed almost all basic rights, and committed human rights abuses with impunity." In July 2013, the Assistance Association for Political Prisoners indicated that there were about 100 political prisoners held in Burmese jails.
Evidence collected by a British researcher was published in 2005 on the annihilation or 'breeding' of certain ethnic minorities, such as Karen, Karenni and Shan.
Child soldiers
Child soldiers have played a major role in the Burmese Army until about 2012. The Independent reported in June 2012 that "Children are sold as conscripts to the Burmese military for only $ 40 and a bag of rice or a can of gasoline. "The UN Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict Radhika Coomaraswamy, who resigned from his position a week later, met with representatives of the Government of Myanmar on July 5, 2012 and stated that he hopes the signing of an action by the government plan will" transformation." In September 2012, the Armed Forces of Myanmar freed 42 child soldiers and the International Labor Organization met with government representatives and the Kachin Independence Army to ensure the release of more child soldiers. According to Samantha Power, the US delegation raised the issue of child soldiers with the government in October 2012. However, he did not comment on the government's progress on reform in this field.
The Bangkok Post article on December 23, 2012 reports that the Armed Forces of Myanmar continue to use child soldiers including during major military offensives against KIA in December 2012.
Child labor/forced/slave, systematic sexual violence and human trafficking
Forced labor, trafficking and child labor are common. The military is also known for widespread sexual violence, a practice that continues into 2012. In 2007, the international movement to defend women's rights issues in Myanmar is said to be accelerating.
Allegations and crimes of genocide against Rohingyas
The Rohingyas have consistently faced human rights abuses by the Burmese regime that refuse to recognize them as Burmese citizens (although some have been living in Burma for more than three generations) - Rohingyas have been denied Burmese citizenship since the entry into force of the citizenship Act 1982. The law creates three categories of citizenship: citizenship, civic relations, and naturalized citizenship. Citizenship is given to those who belong to one of the national races such as Kachin, Kayah (Karenni), Karen, Chin, Burman, Mon, Rakhine, Shan, Kaman, or Zerbadee. Associate Citizenship is granted to those who can not prove their ancestors settled in Myanmar before 1823, but can prove that they have one grandparent, or pre-1823 ancestor, who is a citizen of another country, as well as those applying for citizenship in 1948 and later qualified by those laws. Naturalized citizenship is granted only to those who have at least one parent with one of these Burmese citizenship types or can provide "conclusive proof" that their parents entered and stayed in Burma prior to independence in 1948. The Burmese regime has sought to forcibly evict Rohingyas and bringing the non-Rohingyas to replace them - this policy has resulted in the expulsion of about half of the 800,000 Rohingyas from Burma, while the Rohingyas have been described as "among the least undesirable in the world" and "one of the worlds most persecuted minorities. "But the origin of the 'most persecuted minority' statement is unclear.
Rohingyas are also not allowed to travel without official permission, are forbidden to own land and must sign a commitment not to have more than two children. In July 2012, the Burmese Government not belonging to the Rohingya minority - classified as a Bengali Muslim Bengali citizen from Bangladesh since 1982 - on the government list of over 130 ethnic races and, therefore, the government declares that they have no claim to Myanmar citizenship.
In 2007, German professor Bassam Tibi stated that the Rohingya conflict might be driven by the Islamic political agenda to impose religious law, while non-religious reasons have also been raised, such as ongoing anger over the violence that occurred during the Japanese occupation of Burma in World War II - during this period, the United Kingdom allied with Rohingyas and fought against the puppet government of Burma (mostly composed of Japanese Bamar) who helped to form the ruling military organization of Tatmadaw in March 2013.
Since the democratic transition began in 2011, there has been continuous violence when 280 people have been killed and 140,000 forced to flee their homes in Rakhine state. A UN envoy reported in March 2013 that riots have resurfaced between Buddhist and Muslim communities of Myanmar, with violence spreading to towns located closer to Yangon.
Rohingya left by boat
Rohingya has left Rakhine State with a boat to find employment in Malaysia in recent years. Often, the boat is very small and dangerous in the open sea. It is estimated that 100,000 Rohingya have escaped from Myanmar in the last two years for fear of persecution and violence. They have fled to Thailand, Malaysia, or even Australia to take refuge. More than 200 have died in recent years and over 7,000 have been detained in detention centers even after surviving a boat trip.
Rakhine State riot 2012
The widely publicized Burmese conflict is the Rakhine riots of 2012, a series of conflicts involving mainly Rakhine Buddhists and Rohingya Muslims in the northern state of Rakhine - an estimated 90,000 people were displaced by the unrest.
The immediate cause of the unrest is unclear, with many commentators citing the killing of ten Burmese Muslims by ethnic Rakhine after the rape and murder of a Rakhine woman as the main cause. The whole village has been "destroyed". More than 300 homes and a number of public buildings have been flattened. According to Tun Khin, president of the British Rohingya Organization (BROUK), on June 28, 2012, 650 Rohingyas have been killed, 1,200 missing, and more than 80,000 displaced. According to Myanmar authorities, the violence, between ethnic Rakhine Buddhists and Rohingya Muslims, left 78 dead, 87 injured, and thousands homes destroyed. It displaced more than 52,000 people.
The government has responded by imposing a curfew and by deploying troops in the area. On June 10, 2012, an emergency was announced in Rakhine, allowing the military to participate in the administration of the territory. Military and Burmese police have been accused of targeting Rohingya Muslims through mass arrests and arbitrary violence. A number of monk organizations that played a key role in Myanmar's struggle for democracy have taken steps to block any humanitarian aid to the Rohingya community.
Freedom of speech
Media censorship was significantly reduced in August 2012 after demonstrations by hundreds of protesters wearing shirts demanded the government "Stop Killing the Press." The most significant change comes in the form that media organizations will no longer have to submit their content to the censorship board before it is published. However, as explained by one editorial in the press that exiled The Irrawaddy , "freedom" has recently caused some Burmese journalists only see the new law as an attempt to create an environment of self-censorship as a journalist. "Obliged to follow the 16 guidelines to protect the three national causes - non-disintegration of the Union, non-disintegration of national solidarity, preservation of sovereignty - and" journalistic ethics "to ensure that their story is accurate and does not harm national, security." In July 2014, five journalists were sentenced to 10 years in prison after publishing a report saying that the country is planning to build a new chemical weapons factory. Jailings journalists described as a blow against the freedom of the news media who had just won five decades that have followed the censorship and persecution. Two Reuters journalists were accused and imprisoned on December 12, 2017, for violating state secrecy laws when they cover a mass exodus of Rohingya Muslim minority.
Praise for government reform 2011
According to Crisis Group, since Myanmar turned to a new government in August 2011, the country's human rights record has improved. Previously giving Myanmar the lowest rank 7, the 2012 report World Freedom also noted an increase, giving Myanmar 6 for improvements in civil liberties and political rights, the release of political prisoners, and loosening restrictions. In 2013, Myanmar improved again, receiving a score of five in civil liberties and six in political freedom.
The Government has amassed a National Commission on Human Rights consisting of 15 members from various backgrounds. Some exile activists, including members of Thee Lay Thee Anyeint, have returned to Myanmar after President Thein Sein's invitation to expatriates to return home to work for national development. In a speech to the United Nations Security Council on September 22, 2011, Myanmar Foreign Minister Wunna Maung Lwin stressed the government's intention to release detainees in the near future.
The government has also loosened the reporting legislation, but this remains very restrictive. In September 2011, some banned websites, including YouTube, the Democratic Voice of Burma, and Voice of America, were not blocked. A 2011 report by Hauser Center for Nonprofit Organizations found that, when contacts with the Burmese government were hampered by donor restrictions, international humanitarian NGOs saw opportunities for effective advocacy with government officials, especially at the local level. At the same time, international NGOs are aware of the ethical difficulties of how to work with the government without strengthening or defusing it.
2013 and beyond
After Thein Sein's first visit to Britain and a meeting with Prime Minister David Cameron, Myanmar's president declared that all his nation's political prisoners will be released by the end of 2013, in addition to a statement of support for the welfare of the Rohingya Muslim community. In a speech at Chatham House, he revealed that "We [the Burmese government] are reviewing all cases, I assure you that by the end of this year there will be no prisoners of conscience in Myanmar." In addition to expressing a desire to strengthen relations between troops the British military and Myanmar. Homosexual acts are illegal in Myanmar. In 2016, Myanmar leader Aung San Suu Kyi is accused of failing to protect Myanmar's Muslim minority. Since August 2017 Doctors Without Borders have treated 113 Rohingya refugee women for sexual assault with all but one military attacker.
Nuclear weapons program
There is speculation that Myanmar is interested in developing nuclear weapons, and that North Korea plans to export nuclear technology to Myanmar. These reports are based on evidence gathered from anti-government Burma. Myanmar is a signatory of a special ASEAN agreement banning all types of nuclear weapons in Southeast Asian countries.
Economy
Myanmar is one of the poorest countries in Southeast Asia, suffering from stagnation, mismanagement, and isolation for decades. The lack of skilled, educated workers in modern technology hinders Myanmar's economy, although recent reforms and developments are being carried out by the new government, working with foreign countries and organizations aiming to make this into something of the past.
Myanmar does not have adequate infrastructure. Traveling goods mainly across the Thai border (where most illegal drugs are exported) and along the Irrawaddy River. The train is old and imperfect, with little improvement since its construction in the late 19th century. Highways are usually not asphalted, except in big cities.
In 2010-2011, Bangladesh exported $ 9.65 million worth of products to Myanmar from imports worth $ 179 million. The annual import of drugs and medical equipment to Myanmar during the 2000s was 160 million USD.
In recent years, China and India have sought to strengthen ties with the government for economic benefits. Many countries, including the United States and Canada, and the European Union, have imposed trade and investment sanctions on Myanmar. The United States and the European Union alleviate most of their sanctions in 2012. Foreign investment mainly comes from China, Singapore, Philippines, South Korea, India, and Thailand.
Economic history
Under British rule, Myanmar is the second richest country in Southeast Asia. It is the largest rice exporter in the world. Myanmar also has a wealth of natural resources and labor. British Burmese began exporting crude oil in 1853, making it one of the earliest producers of petroleum in the world. It produces 75% of teak in the world and has a very literate population. But the wealth was mainly concentrated in the hands of the Europeans. In the 1930s, agricultural production dropped dramatically as international rice prices declined, and did not recover for decades. Plan to expand new prosperity and expand the run
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