A coin is a small piece of metal or plastic round, usually (usually) used primarily as a legitimate means of exchange or payment instrument. They are standardized in weight, and are produced in large quantities on the mint to facilitate trade. They are most often issued by the government.
Coins are usually metal or alloy, or sometimes made of synthetic materials. They are usually disc-shaped. Coins made of precious metals are stored in large quantities as bullion coins. Other coins are used as money in daily transactions, circulating in addition to paper money. Usually the highest outstanding coin value (ie excluding bullion coins) is worth less than the lowest values. In the last hundred years, the nominal value of circulating coins is sometimes lower than the value of the metal it contains, for example due to inflation. If the difference becomes significant, the issuing authority may decide to withdraw these coins from circulation, possibly issuing new equivalents to different compositions, or the public may decide to melt the coins down or stockpile them (see Gresham's law).
Exceptions to face value rules that are higher than the value of the content also occur for some bullion coins made of copper, silver, or gold (and, rarely, other metals, such as platinum or palladium), are intended for collectors or investors in precious metals. Examples of modern gold collectors/investor coins include British sovereignty printed by the United Kingdom, American Gold Eagle printed by the United States, Canada Canadian Gold Leaves, and Krugerrand, printed by South Africa. While Eagle, Maple Leaf, and Sovereign coins have nominal nominal value (pure symbolic), Krugerrand does not.
Historically, large quantities of coin (including alloy) and other materials (eg porcelain) have been used to produce coins for metal circulation, collection, and investment: bullion coins often serve as stores more convenient than quantity and purity of metals than others. gold bar
Video Coin
Histori
The first coins were developed in the Anatolian Iron Age around the 7th and 6th century BC. Coins spread rapidly in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, throughout Greece and Persia, and further into the Balkans.
The standard Roman currency was used throughout the Roman Empire. Important gold and silver coins continued into the Middle Ages (see Golden Dinar, Solidus, Aureus, Denarius). The ancient and early medieval coins in theory have their metal content values, although there are many examples throughout the history of governments inflating their currencies by lowering the metal content of their currencies, so the inferior coins are worth lesser in metals than their faces. value. Fiat money first appeared in medieval China, with jiaozi paper money. Early banknotes were introduced in Europe in the Middle Ages, but some coins continued to have the value of gold or silver they had during the Early Modern period. The penny was printed as silver coins until the 17th century.
The first circulating United States coin was penny (sen), produced in 1793, and made entirely of copper. Silver content depleted many coins in the 19th century (the use of billon), and the first coins made entirely of base metals (eg nickel, cupronickel, aluminum bronze), representing a higher value of their metal grades, were printed in the mid- 19.
Coins are the evolution of the "currency" system of the Late Bronze Age, where standard-sized ingots, and tokens like knife money, are used to store and transfer value. At the end of the Chinese Bronze Age, a standard cast token was created, as found in a tomb near Anyang. This is a bronze replica of the previous Chinese currency, cowrie shells, so they are named Bronze Shell.
Iron Age
According to Aristotle (fr 611,37, ed. V. Rose) and Pollux (Onamastikon IX.83), the first publisher of the coin was Hermodike of Kyme
The earliest coins were mostly associated with Iron Age Anatolia, especially with the Lydian kingdom. Early electrum coins are not standardized in weight, and in the early stages they may be ritual objects, such as badges or medals, issued by priests. Many of the earliest Lydian and Greek coins were printed under individual personal authority and thus were more akin to tokens or insignia than modern coins, though because of their apparent number that some were official state problems, with King Alyattes of Lydia, 619-560 BC, coins are often mentioned.
The first Lydian coins are made of electrum, a naturally formed silver and gold alloy combined with added silver and copper.
Most of Lydia's early coins include no writing ("legend" or "inscription"), only images of symbolic animals. Therefore, the dating of these coins relies primarily on archaeological evidence, with the most frequently cited evidence derived from the excavations at the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, also called Artemisi Ephesus (which would later develop into one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World). Since the eldest lion head "coins" are found in the temple, and they do not seem to be used in trade, these objects may not be coins, but the badges or medals issued by the priests at the temple. Anatolian Artemis is ?????? ????? (Potnia ThÃÆ'ªrÃÆ'Â'n, "Madame Animal"), whose symbol is a stag.
It took some time before the ancient coins were used for trade and trade. Even the smallest denomination electron coin, which may be worth about a day subsistence, would be too valuable to buy a loaf of bread. The first coin used for large-scale retail is probably a small silver fragment, Hemiobol, an Ancient Greek coin printed by the Ionian Greeks at the end of the sixth century BC.
A small portion of early Lydian/Greek coins have legends. A famous early electro coin, the oldest written coin known today, comes from nearby Caria. This coin has a Greek legend that reads phaenos emi sema interpreted diverse as "I am the sign of Phanes", or "I am a sign of light", or "I am a light tomb", or "I am a tomb Phanes ". The coins of Phanes are known to be among the earliest Greek coins, a hemihekte of this problem found in the deposit foundations of the temple of Artemis in Ephesos (the oldest deposit of discovered electro coins). One assumption is that Phanes was a wealthy merchant; others that this coin was associated with Apollo-Phanes and, because of the Deer, with Artemis (the twin brother of Apollo-Phaneos). Although only seven Phanes coins are found, it is also important that 20% of all earliest electrum coins also have Artemis lions and Apollo-Phaneos solar explosions.
Or, Phanes was probably the Halicarnassian mercenary of the Amasis mentioned by Herodotus, who fled to the court of Cambyses, and became his guide in the Egyptian invasion of 527 or 525 BC. According to Herodotus, Phanes was buried alive by sandstorms, along with 50,000 Persian troops, while trying to conquer the Amun-Zeus temple in Egypt. The fact that the Greek word "Phanes" also means light (or lamp), and the word "sema" also means the tomb makes this coin into one of the famous and controversial.
Another candidate for the earliest coin site was Aegina, where Chelone coins ("turtles") were first printed around 700 BC. Coins from Athens and Corinth emerged shortly thereafter, known to exist at least since the end of the 6th century BC.
Classic ancient
The Coinage follows the first Greek colonization and influence around the Mediterranean and soon after to North Africa (including Egypt), Syria, Persia, and the Balkans.
Coins were printed in the Achaemenid Empire, including gold darics and silver sigloi . With the conquest of Achemenid over Gandhara under Darius the Great c. 520 BC, practice spread to the Indo-Gangetic Plain. These period coins are called Purana , Karshapanas or Pana . These earliest Indian coins, however, are not like those circulating in Persia, which are of the Greek/Anatolian type; they are not disc-shaped but stamped metal bars, suggesting that stamped currency innovations are added to the pre-existing token currency form that already exists in the Mahajanapada kingdom of the Indian Iron Age. Mahajanapadas who scored their own coins including Gandhara, Kuntala, Kuru, Panchala, Shakya, Surasena and Surashtra.
In China, the first round coin appeared in the 4th century BC.
Koin Romawi pertama, yang mentah, perunggu cor berat, dikeluarkan c. 289 SM.
Filipina
In the Philippines, gold, abundant in many parts of the island, always finds its way to these objects including Piloncitos, small beads such as beads deemed by local numismatics as the earliest coins of the ancient Filipinos, and gold barter. rang.
Piloncitos are small - some have corn core sizes - and weigh from 0.09 to 2.65 grams of pure gold. Large piloncitos weighing 2.65 grams close to the weight of one mass. Piloncitos have been extracted from Mandaluyong, Bataan, the banks of the Pasig River, Batangas, Marinduque, Samar, Leyte and some areas of Mindanao. They have been found in large numbers on Indonesian archaeological sites that lead to the original question. Is Piloncitos made in Philippines or imported? The gold mined and worked on here is evidenced by many Spanish accounts, such as the one in 1586 that says:
"People from this island (Luzon) are very skilled in handling gold, and weigh them with the greatest skill and delicacy they have ever seen. The first thing they teach their children is the knowledge of the gold and the weights they consider, because there is none other money among them. "
Medieval
The first European coin to use Arabic numerals for the date of the year in which the coin was printed was the silver St. Gall Plappart of 1424.
Maps Coin
Value
Currency
Most of the current coins are made of base metal, and their value comes from their status as paper money. This means that the value of the coin is determined by the fiat of the government (law), and thus is determined by the free market only as much as the national currency is used in domestic trade and is also traded internationally in the foreign exchange market. Thus, these coins are monetary tokens, just as paper currency is: they are usually not supported by metal, but by some form of government guarantee. Some people suggest that the coins are not considered "original coins" (see below). Thus, there is a very small economic difference between a note and a coin with an equivalent nominal value.
Coins may circulate with fiat values ​​lower than their metal component values, but they were never originally issued with that value, and flaws only arise over time due to inflation, as the market value for metals overtakes the declared value of fiat coins. Examples are the US pre-1965 dime, quarter, half dollar, and dollar (nominally containing slightly less than one-tenth, quarter, half, and full ounce of silver, respectively), US nickel, and pre-1982 US dollars. As a result of the increase in the value of copper, the United States greatly reduced the amount of copper in every cent. Since mid-1982, US coins were made of 97.5% zinc, with the remaining 2.5% being copper layers. The extreme difference between fiat values ​​and metal coin values ​​causes coins to be dumped or removed from circulation by illicit smelters to realize their metal content values. This is an example of Gresham's law. The United States Mint, in an attempt to avoid this, applied a new provisional rule on December 14, 2006, subject to public comments for 30 days, which criminalizes the disbursement and export of pennies and cents. Violators can be fined up to $ 10,000 and/or incarcerated for up to five years.
Collector item
The value of a coin as a collector's item or as an investment generally depends on its condition, certain historical significance, scarcity, quality, design beauty and general popularity with collectors. If coins are so lacking in all this, it may not be worth much. The value of bullion coins is also influenced by these factors, but is largely based on the value of their gold, silver, or platinum content. Sometimes non-monetized bullion coins such as Canadian Maple Leaf and American Gold Eagle are printed with nominal nominal value less than the metal value in it, but since the coin is never intended for circulation, these face values ​​have no relevance.
Media expression
Coins can be used as a medium of creative expression - from art sculptures to penny machines that can be found in most amusement parks. In the Federal Code of Conduct (CFR) in the United States there are some special rules for pennies and pennies that are informative on this topic. 31 CFR Ã,§ 82.1 prohibits unauthorized persons from exporting, melting, or treating 5 or 1 cent coins.
This has been a special issue with pennies and cents (with some equivalent coins in other currencies) because of their relatively low nominal value and unstable commodity prices. In the interim, copper in US coins is worth more than a cent, so people will hoard the coins and then melt them for their metal grades. It costs more than the face value to produce pennies or cents, so the widespread loss of coins in circulation can be expensive for US Treasury. This is more of a problem when coins are still made of precious metals such as silver and gold, so strict laws against change make more historical sense.
31 CFR Ã,§Ã,82,2 goes on to state that: "(b) The prohibition contained in Ã, §82,1 to the treatment of 5 cents coin and one cent coin shall not apply to the treatment of these coins for education, entertainment, novelty, jewelry, and similar purposes during the treated volume and nature of care make it clear that such treatment is not intended as a means to gain profit solely from the value of the coin metal content. "
Debasemen
Throughout history, kings and governments often created more currencies than their precious metal supplies would have allowed if coins were pure metal. By replacing some of the precious metal coins with base metals (often copper or nickel), the intrinsic value of each individual coin is reduced (thereby "degrading" the money), allowing the coining authority to produce more coins than otherwise possible. Debasement sometimes happens to make coins physically harder and therefore less likely to be charged quickly, but the more common reason is to benefit from the difference between the nominal value and the metal value. Debt money almost always leads to price inflation. Sometimes price controls are at the same time institutionalized by regulatory authorities, but historically this has generally proven unworkable.
The United States is unusual because few change the currency system (except the image and symbol of the coin, which has changed several times) to accommodate two centuries of inflation. The one-cent coin has changed slightly since 1856 (though its composition was changed in 1982 to remove almost all copper from coins) and is still outstanding, although purchasing power is greatly reduced. At the other end of the spectrum, the largest coin in the general circulation is worth 25 cents, a very low value for the largest denomination coin compared to many other countries. The rise in the price of copper, nickel and zinc means that the coins of one and five US cents become more valuable for their raw metal content than their fiat value. In particular, the one-cent piece of copper (dated before 1982 and a few coins in 1982) contains about two cents of copper.
Some of the outstanding coin denominations previously printed in the United States are no longer made. These include coins with par value of half a cent, two cents, three cents, and twenty cents. (Dollars and dollars are still produced, but mostly for vending machines and collectors.) In the past, the US also created the following denominations for the gold circulation: One dollar, $ 2.50, three dollars, five dollars, ten dollars, and twenty dollars. In addition, the penny is initially slightly larger than the modern quarter and weighs almost half an ounce, while the five-cent coin (known as "half dimes") is smaller than a dime and is made of silver alloy. The dollar coins are also much larger, and weigh about an ounce. The one-dollar gold coin is no longer produced and rarely used. The US also publishes bullion coins and commemorative coins with the following denominations: 50 Â ¢, $ 1, $ 5, $ 10, $ 25, $ 50, and $ 100.
Other uses
Some convicted criminals from the British Isles who were sentenced to transport to Australia in the 18th and 19th centuries used coins to leave a warning message to loved ones left behind in England. The coins are damaged, smoothed and etched, either by banging or carving, with words that sometimes touch the loss. These coins are called "prisoner love tokens" or "lead hearts". A number of these tokens are in the collection of the National Museum of Australia.
Modern coin features
Coins in circulation generally suffer from "shaving" or "clipping": the public will cut a small amount of precious metal from their edges to sell it and then pass on the mutilated coin at full value. Unmade sterling silver coins are sometimes reduced to nearly half the weight. This form of humiliation in the English Tudor was commented on by Sir Thomas Gresham, whose name was later attributed to Gresham's law. The king must regularly remember the coins in circulation, just pay the value of silver bars, and remember it again. This, also known as recoinage, is a long and difficult process that is only done occasionally. Many coins have been milled or flattened edges, originally designed to make it easier to detect clippings.
The sides of coins carrying images of monarchies or other authorities, or national symbols, are usually called the front , or colloquially, head ; see also List of people with coins . The other side, which may carry denominations, is usually called reverse , or everyday language, tail . The year of printing is usually shown on the front, although some Chinese coins, mostly Canadian coins, early British 20p coins of 2008, the American quarter of 1999, and all Japanese coins, are exceptions.
In the case where a correctly oriented coin is reversed about the horizontal axis to show the other side is correctly oriented, the coins are said to have a coin orientation. In cases where the coin is reversed about the vertical axis to show the other side correctly oriented, it is said to have a medallic orientation. While coins of coin orientation display the United States dollar, the people of Euro and pound sterling have a medial orientation.
Bimetallic coins are sometimes used for higher values ​​and for warning purposes. In the 1990s, France used tri-metal coins. Examples of commonly circulated bimetallic include EUR1, EUR2, UK Ã, Â £ 1, Ã, Â £ 2 and Canada $ 2 and some peso coins in Mexico.
The exergue is the space on the coin under the main design, often used to indicate the date of the coin, although it is sometimes left empty or contains mint marks, secret marks, or some other decorative or informative design. features. Many coins that have absolutely no traces, especially those with little or no legend, such as the Victorian penny bread.
Not all coins are round. The 50 cent Australian coins, for example, have twelve flat sides. Some coins have wavy sides, for example $ 2 coins and 20 cents Hong Kong and 10 cent coins from the Bahamas. Some are square, like 15 cent coins from the Bahamas and 50 cent coins from Aruba. During the 1970s, Swazi coins were printed in several forms, including squares, polygons, and wavy circles with waves 8 and 12.
Some other coins, such as 20 and 50 cent British and Canadian Loonie coins, have an odd number of sides, with rounded edges. In this way the coin has a constant diameter, recognized by the vending machine wherever its direction is inserted.
A triangular coin with a face value of Ã, Â £ 5 (produced to commemorate the 2007/2008 Tutankhamun exhibition at The O2 Arena) was commissioned by the Isle of Man: it became a legal tender on December 6, 2007. Other previously issued triangular coins include: Cabinda coin , Bermuda coin, 2 Dollars Cook Islands 1992 triangle coins, Uganda Millennium Coin and Polish Sterling-Silver 10-Zloty Coin.
Some medieval coins, called bracteates, are very thin, they are struck only on one side.
Many coins over the years have been produced with integrated holes such as Chinese "money" coins, Japanese coins, French colonial coins, etc. This may have been done to enable them strung together on the rope, for easy storage and carrying.
The Royal Canadian Mint is now capable of producing gold coins and silver-holographic effects. However, this procedure is not limited to just bullion or warning coins. 500 yen coins from Japan are subject to a large number of counterfeits. The Japanese government in response produces circulatory coins with holographic images.
The Royal Canadian Mint has also released several colored coins, the first of which is the anniversary commemoration. The subject is a colored poppy behind a 25-cent cut that is printed through a patented process.
Examples of non-metallic composite coins (sometimes incorrectly called plastic coins) are introduced to circulation in Transnistria on 22 August 2014. Most of these coins are also not in circles, with different shapes corresponding to different coin values.
For a list of many of the pure metal elements and alloys that have been used in actual circulation coins and for experimental experiments, see the coin metal.
Physics and chemistry
Flip
Popular coins are used as a kind of double-sided dice; to select between two options with a random chance, one option will be labeled head and the other tail , and the coins will be flipped or thrown to see if the head or tail side appears above - see coin flipping. Mathematically, this is known as the Bernoulli experiment: a fair coin is defined to have a probability of head (in Bernoulli's judicial language, "success") is precisely 0.5.
Spinning
Coins can also be played on a flat surface like a table. This results in the following phenomenon: when the coins fall and roll over the edges, it spins faster and faster (formally, the level of precession of the coin symmetry axis, ie, the axis passing from one face of the coin to another) before it stops abruptly. It is mathematically modeled as a time-limited singularity - the level of precession is accelerating to infinity, before it suddenly stops, and has been studied using high-speed photography and devices such as Euler's Disk. The slowdown is mostly due to frictional friction (small air resistance), and the singularity (pronounced level difference) can be modeled as a force law with exponents of about -1/3.
Odor
Copper iron and coins have a distinctive metallic odor produced after contact with oil on the skin. Chemical sweat is reduced after contact with these metals, which causes skin oil to decompose, forming with a 1-octry-3-one volatile iron molecule.
See also
Notes and references
Bibliography
- Angus, Ian. Coins & amp; Money Token . London: Ward Lock, 1973. ISBNÃ, 0-7063-1811-0.
External links
- Media related to Coins on Wikimedia Commons
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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